Neurological examination four pdf - عملي

Neuro Exam

Charlie Goldberg, M.D.

Professor of Medicine, UCSD SOM

Elements of The Neuro Exam

• Cranial Nerves
• Motor – bulk, tone, strength
• Coordination – fine movements, balance
• Sensation – pain, touch, position sense,

vibration

• Reflexes
• Gait
*Mental status covered elsewhere

CN 1- Olfactory: Sense of

Smell

• Check air movement thru ea

nostril separately.

• Smell not usually assessed

(unless sx)

– use coffee grounds or other

w/distinctive odor

(e.g. mint, wintergreen, etc)
- check ea nostril independently
- detect odor when presented @

10cm.

Hmmm..

Coffee!

Hammer & Nails icon indicates A Slide

Describing Skills You Should Perform In Lab

Functional Assessment

– Acuity (Cranial

Nerve 2

– Optic)

• Using hand held card

(held @ 14 inches) or
Snellen wall chart,
assess ea eye
separately. Allow
patient to wear
glasses.

• Direct patient to read

aloud line w/smallest

lettering that they’re
able to see.

Hand Held Acuity Card

Functional Assessment

– Acuity (cont)

• 20/20 =s patient can read

at 20` with same accuracy
as person with normal
vision.

• 20/400 =s patient can read

@ 20` what normal person
can read from 400` (i.e.
very poor acuity).

• If patient can’t identify all

items correctly, number
missed is listed after a ‘-’
sign (e.g. 20/80 -2, for 2
missed on 20/80 line).

Snellen Chart For Acuity Testing

Functional Assessment - Visual

Fields (Cranial Nerve 2 - Optic)

Lesion #1

Lesion #3

Images from: Wash Univ. School
of Medicine, Dept Neuroscience

http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course
/basvis.html

NEJM Interactive case

– w/demo of visual

field losses:

http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJ
Mimc1306176?query=featured_home

CN 2 - Checking Visual Fields By

Confrontation

• Face patient, roughly 1-2 ft

apart, noses @ same level.

• Close your R eye, while

patient closes their L. Keep
other eyes open & look directly
@ one another.

• Move your L arm out & away,

keeping it ~ equidistant from
the 2 of you. A raised index
finger should be just outside
your field of vision.

CN 2 - Checking Visual Fields By

Confrontation (cont)

• Wiggle finger & bring it in

towards your noses. You
should both be able to
detect it @ same time.

• Repeat, moving finger in

from each direction. Use
other hand to check
medial field (i.e. starting
in front of the closed eye).

• Then repeat for other

eye.

Pupillary Response

• Pupils modulate amount of light entering eye (like

shutter on camera)

• Dark conditionsdilate; Brightconstrict
• Pupils respond symmetrically to input from either

eye

– Direct response =s constriction in response to direct

light

– Consensual response =s constriction in response to

light shined in opposite eye

• Light impulses travel away (afferents) from pupil
  via CN 2 & back (efferents) to cilliary muscles
  that control dilatation via CN 3

Pupillary Response Testing

Technique

• Make sure room is darkpupils a little dilated,

yet not so dark that cant observe response

– can

use your hand to provide “shade” over eyes

• Shine light in R eye:

– R pupil  constricts
– Again shine light in R eye, but this time watch L pupil

(should also constrict)

• Shine light in L eye:

– L pupil  constricts
– Again shine light in L eye, but this time watch R pupil

(should also constrict)

Pupillary Response Testing

Technique

• Swinging Flashlight Test

– Looks for afferent pupil defect (CN II)
– After observing each eye individually, move

the flashlight between the left and right eye at
a steady rate

– See an example at Neuroexam.com:

•

http://www.neuroexam.com/neuroexam/content.ph
p?p=19

Describing Pupilary Response

• Normal recorded as: PERRLA (Pupils Equal,

Round, Reactive to Light and Accommodation)

–

w/accommodation = to constriction occurring
when eyes follow finger brought in towards
them, directly in middle (i.e. when looking “cross
eyed”).

• Abnormal responses can be secondary to:

– direct or indirect damage to either CN 2 or 3

• Or parasympathetic injury to CN3 or damage to the

sympathetic neurons

– meds e.g. sympathomimetics (cocaine) dilate,

narcotics (heroin) constrict.

Pupil Response Simulator

University of California, Davis School of

Medicine

– Designed by Dr. Rick Lasslo,

M.D., M.S.

http://cim.ucdavis.edu/EyeRelease/Interface/

pSim.htm

CNs 3, 4 & 6

Extra Ocular Movements

• Eye movement

dependent on Cranial
Nerves 3, 4, and 6 &
muscles they innervate.

• Allows smooth,

coordinated movement in
all directions of both eyes
simultaneously

• There’s some overlap

between actions of
muscles/nerves

Image Courtesty of Leo D Bores,
M.D. Occular Anatomy: http://www.e-
sunbear.com/anatomy_01.html

Cranial Nerves (CNs) 3, 4 & 6

Extra Occular Movements (cont)

• CN 6 (Abducens)

– Lateral rectus musclemoves eye laterally

• CN 4 (Trochlear)

– Superior oblique musclemoves eye down

(depression) when looking towards nose; also
rotates internally.

• CN 3 (Oculomotor)

– All other muscles of eye movement – also

raises eye lid & mediates pupilary constriction.

CNs & Muscles That Control

Extra Occular Movements

CN 6-LR

CN 4-SO

SO ‘4’, LR ‘6’, All The Rest ‘3’

LR- Lateral Rectus

MR-Medial Rectus

SR-Superior Rectus

IR-Inferior Rectus

SO-Superior Oblique

IO-Inferior Oblique

6 “Cardinal” Directions
Movement

Technique For Testing Extra-

Ocular Movements

• To Test:

– Patient keeps head immobile, following your

finger w/their eyes as you trace letter

“H”

– Alternatively, direct them to follow finger

w/their eyes as you trace large rectangle

• Eyes should move in all directions, in

coordinated, smooth, symmetric fashion.

• Hold the eyes in lateral gaze for a second

to look for nystagmus

Extra Occular Eye Movement

Simulator

University of California, Davis School of

Medicine

– Rick Lasslo, M.D., M.S.

http://cim.ucdavis.edu/eyes/version1/eyesim

.htm

Function CN 5 - Trigeminal

• Sensation:

– 3 regions of face: Ophthalmic, Maxillary &

Mandibular

• Motor:

– Temporalis & Masseter muscles

Function CN 5

– Trigeminal

(cont)

Ophthalmic(V1)

Maxillary (V2)

Mandibular (V3)

Temporalis
(clench teeth)

Masseter (move
jaw side-side)

Sensory

Motor

* Corneal Reflex: Blink when cornea touched - Sensory CN
5, Motor CN 7

Temporalis & Masseter Muscles

Oregon Health Sciences University:
http://home.teleport.com/~bobh/

Testing CN 5 - Trigeminal

• Sensory:

– Ask pt to close eyes
– Touch ea of 3 areas (ophthalmic, maxillary, &

mandibular) lightly, noting whether patient detects
stimulus.

• Motor:

– Palpate temporalis & mandibular areas as patient

clenches & grinds teeth

• Corneal Reflex:

– Tease out bit of cotton from q-tip - Sensory CN 5,

Motor CN 7

– Blink when touch cornea w/cotton wisp

Function CN 7

– Facial Nerve

Facial Symmetry & Expression -

Precise Pattern of Inervation

L UMN

R UMN

R LMN -
Forehead

R LMN – Face

L LMN -
Forehead

L LMN -Face

Thick arrow =s UMN

Dashed arrow =s LMN

CN 7

– Exam

• Observe facial

symmetry

• Wrinkle Forehead
• Keep eyes closed

against resistance

• Smile, puff out

cheeks

• Rarely you may need to

check taste to the anterior
2/3 of the tongue

Cute.. and symmetric!

Pathology: Peripheral CN 7 (Bell’s)

Palsy

Central (i.e. UMN) CN 7 dysfunction (e.g. stroke) - not shown: Can
wrinkle forehead bilaterally; will demonstrate loss of lower facial
movement on side opposite stroke.

Patient can’t close L eye, wrinkle L forehead or
raise L corner mouthL CN 7 Peripheral (i.e. LMN)
Dysfunction

Comparison of a patient with (A)

a facial nerve (Bell’s Type - LMN) lesion

and (B) a supra-nuclear (UMN) lesion w/forehead sparing

Tiemstra J et al. Bell’s Palsy: Diagnosis and Management, Amer J Fam Practice, 2007;76(7):997-1002.

http://www.aafp.org/afp/2007/1001/p997.pdf

Note forehead

and lower face are affected on the

right, which is same side of the LMN lesion

Note forehead sparing on right side,

opposite the UMN lesion

Upper
Motor
Neuron
(UMN)

Lower
Motor
Neuron
(LMN)

The Ear

– Functional Anatomy & Testing

(CN 8

– Acoustic)

• Crude tests hearing –

rub fingers next to
either ear; whisper &
ask pt repeat words

• If sig hearing loss,

determine Conductive
(external canal up to
but not including CN
8) v Sensorineural
(CN 8)

Image Courtesy: Online Otoscopy Tutorial
http://www.uwcm.ac.uk:9080/otoscopy/index.htm

Vestibular
CN8

Auditory
CN8

Conduction

Sensorineural

CN 8 - Defining Cause of

Hearing Loss - Weber Test

• 512 Hz tuning fork - this

(& not 128Hz) is well
w/in range normal
hearing & used for
testing

– Get turning fork vibrate

striking ends against heel
of hand or

Squeeze tips between

thumb & 1

finger

• Place vibrating fork mid

line skull

• Sound should be heard
=ly R and L  bone

conducts to both sides.

CN 8 - Weber Test (cont)

• If conductive hearing

loss (e.g. obstructing
wax in canal on
L)louder on L as
less competing noise.

• If sensorineural on

Llouder on R

• Finger in ear mimics

conductive loss

CN 8 - Defining Cause of Hearing

Loss - Rinne Test

• Place vibrating 512 hz

tuning fork on mastoid
bone (behind ear).

• Patient states when can’t

hear sound.

• Place tines of fork next to

ear should hear it again

– as air conducts better
then bone.

• If BC better then AC,

suggests conductive
hearing loss.

• If sensorineural loss,

then AC still > BC

Note: Weber & Rinne difficult to perform in Anatomy lab due to competing
noise

– repeat @ home in quiet room!

CN 8 Vestibular Division

• You will not routinely test; only w/patients who

present w/new onset “dizziness”

• If the patient has vertigo you will need to perform

a Dix-Hallpike maneuver

• You can seen an example of it here:

http://www.neuroexam.com/neuroexam/content.
php?p=23

Oropharynx: Anatomy & Function CNs 9

(Glossopharyngeal), 10 (Vagus)

• CN 9 &10 are tested together
• Check to see uvula is midline
• Stick out tongue, say “Ahh” –

use tongue depressor if can

’t

see

– Nl response: palate/uvula rise
– We assume 9 is intact if the palate

rises symmetrically thus we test 9
and 10 indirectly here

• Gag Reflex – provoked with

tongue blade or q tip - CN 9
(afferent limb), 10 (efferent
limb)

– test this bilaterally

– This directly tests 9 and 10

Hypoglossal CN 12

• Tongue midline when patient sticks it outCN 12

– check strength by directing patient push tip into inside of either

cheek while you push from outside

– Observe for atrophy or fasciculations

CN 9 & 12 Pathology

L CN 9 palsy: uvula

pulled to R

L CN 12 palsy: tongue

deviates L

Neck Movement

(CN 11

– Spinal Accessory)

• Turn head to L into R
hand function of R

Sternocleidomastoid
(SCM)

• Turn head to R into L

hand (L SCM)

• Shrug shoulders into

your hands

Motor/Strength

Anatomy and Physiology

• Impulse starts brain
• Axon (upper motor

neuron) crosses opposite
side @ brain stem

• Travels down spinal cord
 specific level

Corticospinal (Pyramidal)
Tracts

• Synapses w/2

neuron

(lower motor neuron)

• Leaves cord & travel to

target muscle

• Muscle moves

Washington Univeristy (St Louis) School of
Medicine - Dept Neuroanatomy
http://thalamus.wustl.edu/course/basmot.html

Muscles

– Observation/Bulk

and Palpation

• Make sure to fully expose

the muscle that you’re
examining

• Note Bulk (amount of

muscle mass): accounting
for size patient, activity
level, age

– if decreased, ?

Symmetric

• Palpation: feel the major
muscle groups  provides

insight about bulk, also ?
any Inflammation, pain

L calf hypertrophy and
R calf atrophy

L hand muscle wasting
from de-nervation

Muscle Tone; Observe For

Tremor

• Tone – move major joints (wrists,

elbows, shoulders, hips,

knees, feet)  range of motion

– normal  fluid
– increased w/UMN lesion (spasticity)
– decreased (flacid) w/LMN lesion

• Obvious tremor, unintended

movements, fasciculations:

– loss of muscle innervation (rare!)
– Video of fasciculations:

http://meded.ucsd.edu/clinicalmed/fasciculations.html

Strength

– Scoring System

Quantify with 0  5 Medical Research Council Scale (quasi-objective)

• 0/5  No movement
• 1/5  Barest flicker movement not enough to
      move structure to which attached.
• 2/5  Voluntary movement not sufficient to overcome
      force of gravity.  E.g. patient able to slide hand across table - but
      not lift it from surface.
• 3/5  Voluntary movement capable of overcoming gravity, not any
     applied  resistance.  E.g. patient raises hand off table, but not  w/any
     additional resistance applied.
• 4/5  Voluntary movement capable of overcoming “some” resistance
• 5/5  Normal strength

– can be added to allow for more nuanced scoring of 4/5 strength

(e.g., 4+ or 4-; but not 5-, 3+ or 3-, etc.)

Specific Muscle Group

Testing

• Test the major muscle groups

– Recognize that you will need to augment exam based on clinical

picture/syndrome and may not test everything

– Test one muscle group at a time and compare right to left

• Should be similar accounting for handedness

• Start with shoulder - abduction & adduction
• Elbow - flexion & extension
• Wrist - extension & flexion
• Interossei of Hand – finger abduction & adduction

– Usually first dorsal interosseous and abductor digiti minimi
– Add others as clinically indicated

• Grip strength (okay for screening but unreliable)

– Keep out of the pincer grasp!

• Also must account for age, sex, expected/appropriate

strength

Muscle Group Testing (cont)

• Hip - flexion & extension
• Hip – abduction & adduction
• Knee – flexion & extension
• Ankle – plantar flexion & dorsiflexion

Pronator Drift: A test for subtle upper extremity weakness.

– Have patient stand, close their eyes & extend both hands,

palm up.

– E.g. If R arm slightly weak, it will pronate & “drift” down ward –
suggests UMN lesion

Coordination & Fine Motor Movement

• Coordinated movement depends significantly on

cerebellar input - though also requires strength,
crude motor function, joint movement, vision,
sensation, etc.

Several tests provide similar info:

Specifics:
• Finger-to-nose:

– Place your finger in space in front of patient
– Have pt move their index finger between their nose &

your finger tip

• Heel-to-shin:

– Have patient run heel of 1 foot up & down opposite

shin

Coordination (cont)

Specifics (cont):
• Rapid Alternating Hand Movement

– Have patient alternately touch back & then front of 1 hand

against palm of other

• Rapid Alternating Finger Movement

– Have patient alternately touch tips of ea finger against thumb

of same hand

Gait & Speech (tested elsewhere) often also abnormal in setting

of cerebellar dysfunction

Normal movement is both smooth & accurate.

– If it is slow but regular and smooth, think weakness.

Sensory Testing

Anatomy & Physiology

• 2 main pathways: Spinothalamics & Dorsal

columns.

• Spinothalamics

– Pain, temperature, crude touch
– Impulses enter from periphery cross to other side of

cord within ~ 2 vertebral levels travel up that side to
brain

• Dorsal Columns

– Vibration, position, fine touch
– Impulses from periphery enter cordtravel up that
sidecross to opposite @ base of brainthen travel

to their terminus

Nerves and Their Distributions

• Specific dermatomes

not usually memorzied
– reference chart
helpful to pin down
deficits

• Distributions (& spinal

root contributions) for
specific peripheral
nerves looked up in
appropriate setting

–

http://www.neuroguide.co
m/greatlessoccipital.html

http://academic.uofs.edu/department/pt
/students/dermatom.htm

Spinothalamics

– Pain,

Temperature & Crude Touch

• Break Q-tip in half, creating

sharp, pointy end

– or use a safety pin’s sharp and

blunt end

• Ask patient to close eyes

unable to get visual clues.

• Start @ top of foot.

– Orient patient by first touching

w/sharp implement, then non-
sharp object (e.g. the soft end of
a q-tip)  clarifies for patient
what you’re defining as sharp &
dull

Spinothalamics

– Pain, Temperature

and Crude Touch (cont)

• Touch lateral aspect of

foot w/either sharp or dull

tool patient reports their

response.

• Move medially across top

of foot, noting their
response to ea touch.

– Remember to cross

dermatomes

• Temperature tested by

using a tuning fork (run
under cold or warm
water)

Spinothalamics

– Pain, Temperature

& Crude Touch (cont)

• Light touch assessed

by gently brushing your
finger against extremity
& asking patient (eyes
closed) to note when
they feel it

• Upper extremities

checked in same
fashion

Dorsal Columns - Proprioception

• Allows body to “know” where it is

in space

• Important for balance, walking
• Ask patient to close eyes don’t

receive any visual cues

– With one hand, grasp either side of

great toe at the interphalangeal (IP)
joint. Place your other hand on the
lateral and medial aspects of the
great toe distal to the IP.

– Orient patient as to up and down:

• Flex the toe (pull it upwards)

while telling patient what you’re
doing.

• Extend toe (pull it downwards)

while informing them of which
direction you’re moving it.

Dorsal Columns

–

Proprioception (cont)

• Alternately deflect toe up

or down w/out telling
patient in which direction

you’re moving it should

be able to correctly
identify movement &
direction

–Test both feet.

• Can be checked @ a

more proximal joint (e.g.
ankle) if abnormal.

• Upper extremities

assessed in same
fashion, deflecting finger
up & down

For variations see:

http://www.neuroexam.com/n
euroexam/content.php?p=40

Dorsal Columns

– Vibratory

Sensation

• Ask patient to close eyes don’t

receive visual cues.

• Grasp 128 Hz tuning fork by stem &

strike forked ends against the floor
vibrate.

– Place stem on top of interphalangeal

joint of great toe (you want to be on the
most distal joint for this exam)

– Place fingers of your other hand on

bottom-side of joint

– Ask patient if they can feel vibration.
– You should be able to feel same

sensation w/fingers on bottom side of
joint.

Dorsal Columns

– Vibratory Sensation

(cont)

• Patient determines when
vibration stops correlates

w/when you can’t feel it
transmitted through joint

• Test both feet.
• Check more proximal joints

(e.g. ankle) if sensation
impaired.

• Upper extremities assessed

similarly, w/fork placed on
distal finger joint

Special Sensory Testing

TWO POINT DISCRIMATION (fine touch):

• 2 point discrimination (Dorsal Columns)

particularly useful when assessing for discrete
peripheral nerve injury (e.g. traumatic
disruption)

• Open paper clip  ends ~ 5mm apart
• Patient closes eyes
• Alternately touch w/1 point or 2 – normal nerve

function enables them to make distinction

Special Sensory Testing

(cont)

MONOFILAMENT

TESTING

• Screening test for

diabetic neuropathy

• Touch monofilament to 5-

7 areas on bottom of
foot.

• Normal =s Patient can

detect filament when tip
lightly applied to skin (i.e.
before it bends).

…Trying To Prevent This!

Sensory Testing…

Reflex Testing

Anatomy and Physiology

• Reflex arc made has afferent (sensory) & efferent

(motor) limb

• Synapse in spinal cord, @ which point also input from

upper motor neuron

• Disruption of any part of path alters reflexes: e.g.

– UMN lesion  reflexes more brisk (hyper-reflexia)
– LMN or peripheral sensory lesionsopposite effect (hypo-

reflexia)

• Reflexes graded 0-4+ scale: 0 = no reflex, 1+ =

hyporeflexia, 2+ = normal, 3+ = hyper-reflexia, 4+ =
clonus (multiple movements after a single stimulus)

Penn State Univ

http://www.hmc.psu.edu/sc
iweb/anat/anat4.htm

Reflex Basics

• Reflexes generally assessed in 5 places - 3 in

the arm (biceps, triceps, brachioradialis); 2 in the
leg (patellar & achilles)

• Basic Technique for assessing a reflex:

– Clearly identify tendon of muscle to be tested
– Position limb so muscle @ rest
– Strike tendon briskly
– Observe for muscle contraction & limb

movement

Reflex Basics (cont)

• Array of hammers – all effective
• Reflex Trouble Shooting:

– Make sure patient relaxed & that

you’re striking tendon directly

– Hammer swings freely
– Reinforcement (distraction) helps

if you’re having problems

• When testing legs, ask patient to pull

their hands apart as you strike
tendon

• When testing the upper extremities,

ask them to clench teeth

Example of Hyper-Reflexia:

http://meded.ucsd.edu/clinicalmed/pa
tellar_compare.htm

Biceps (C 5, 6)

• Identify biceps
tendonhave patient flex

elbow against resistance
while you palpate
antecubital fossa

• Place arm so it’s bent ~

90 degrees

• Place one of your fingers

on tendon and strike it
birskly

• Muscle should contract &

forearm flex

Triceps (C 7, 8)

• Identify triceps
tendonhave patient

extend elbow against
resistance while you
palpate above it

• Arm can hang down @

ninety degrees or have
hands on hips

• Strike tendon directly or

place finger on the
tendon & strike it

• Triceps muscle contracts

& arm extends.

Brachioradialis (C5, 6)

• Tendon for

brachioradialis is ~ 10 cm
proximal to wrist

– you

cant see or feel it

• Place arm so resting on

patient’s thigh, bent @
elbow

• Strike firmly
• Muscle will contract &

arm will flex @ elbow &
supinate

Patellar (L3, 4)

• Patellar tendon

extends below knee
cap

– it’s thick &

usually visible &
palpable

– if not,

palpate while patient
extends lower leg

• Strike firmly on

tendon

• Muscle will contract &

leg extend @ knee

Achilles (S1, S2)

• Achilles tendonthick

structure connecting

calf musclesheel

– if

having trouble finding,
palpate as patient
pushes their foot into
your other hand

• Hold foot @ 90 degrees
• Strike tendon firmly
• Muscle will contract &

foot plantar-flex (move
downward)

Babinski

• Gently

stroke bottom of

foot, starting laterally &
near heel

– moving up &

across balls of feet
(metatarsal heads)

– If no response, increase

your pressure

• Normal =s great toe

moving downward

• If UMN lesion (or in

newborns), great toe will
extend & other toes fan
out

Babinski Response

– UMN lesion

http://meded.ucsd.edu/clinicalme
d/babinski_compare.htm

Gait and Romberg Testing

• Romberg: Test of balance & co-ordination input

from multiple systems: proprioception, vestibular,
cerebellum

– Ask patient to stand still w/eyes closed
– If @ risk for falling, be in position to catch ‘em (i.e. behind

them) & get help

• Gait – pay attention to:

– initiation of activity
– arm, leg movement & position
– speed & balance
– have patient walk heel to toe
– heel walking
– toe walking

Example

– Gait after stroke:

http://meded.ucsd.edu/clinicalmed/walking.htm

Summary of Skills

□ Wash Hands
□ Cranial Nerves:

□ CN1 (Olfactory) Smell

□

CN2 (Optic) Visual acuity; Visual fields

□

CNs 2&3 (Optic, Occulomotor) Pupilary Response to light

□

CNs 3, 4 & 6 (Occulomotor, Trochlear, Abduscens) Extra-Occular

Movements

□ CN 5 (Trigeminal) Facial sensation; Muscles Mastication (clench

jaw, chew); Corneal reflex (w/CN 7)

□ CN 7 (Facial) Facial expression

□ CN 8 (Auditory) Hearing

□

CN 9, 10 (Glosopharyngeal, Vagus) Raise palate (“ahh”), gag

□ CN 11 (Spinal Accessory) Turn head against resistance, shrug

shoulders

□ CN 12 (Hypoglossal) Tongue

Continued

Time Target: < 15 minutes

Summary of Skills (cont)

□ Motor testing:

□ muscle bulk
□ tone
□ strength of major groups

□ Sensory testing - in distal lower & upper extremities:

□ pain/crude touch
□ proprioception
□ vibration

□ Reflexes

□  achilles
□  patellar
□  brachioradialis
□  biceps
□  triceps

□ Coordination (fingernose, heelshin, etc.)
□ Gait, Romberg
□ Wash Hands

Time Target: < 15 minutes