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Motivation


Defined as- the internal state or condition that activates and give direction to our thoughts, feelings and actions.

Motivation and emotions are closely linked concepts for three reasons

The arousal of emotions activates behavior as motives do.
Motives are often accompanied by emotions as anxiety in performing a test or sexual motivation generally blended with emotions of passion and love.
emotions typically have motivational properties of their own- e.g. being angry you want to strike out the object of your anger.

Motives are of 2 types- primary or biological motives and psychological motives.

Primary Motives: Biological Needs:
They are human motives for things that are necessary for survival and we must meet these needs or die such as food, water, and warmth. in addition to sleep, avoidance of pain, sexual motive to maintain survival by reproduction and so on.

Homeostasis: Biological thermostats- most of primary motives are based on the body's need to maintain a certain level of essential life elements as adequate sugar in the blood to nourish cells, sufficient water in the body and so on. these critical levels are regulated by homeostatic mechanisms. These mechanisms sense imbalances in the body and stimulate actions that restore the proper balance. It is compared to the thermostats of home heating system.

Hunger: The Regulation of Food Intake

Biological Regulation of Hunger;
The biological control center of hunger is the Hypothalamus which play the control centers operate in opposing ways


Feeding system-or hunger center-, which initiates eating when food is needed, it is located in the lateral hypothalamus.
Satiety system- which stop eating when enough food has been consumed, is located in the ventromedial hypothalamus.
the 3rd Hunger regulating center is located in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. This center both increases and decreases appetite by controlling the level of sugar in the blood.

The information used by the 3 centers in regulating hunger involves 2 cues used to regulate hunger on daily basis, and the 3rd cue is used to regulate body weight on a long-term basis: as follow;
Stomach contractions. - They signal the lateral hypothalamic feeding system, whereas a full stomach activates the ventromedial satiety system.

Blood-sugar level-Hypothalamus contains specialized neurons that can directly detect the level of glucose in the bloodstream, but two other organs provide most information to the hypothalamus. i.e. the liver which detects blood glucose level and the upper small intestine-or duodenum, detects sugar in food that just has been eaten .both organs send chemical messages to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, which plays a role in initiating or stopping eating. Insulin and glucagons have direct effect in this mechanism.

Body fat levels:-Long term maintenance of body weight is managed by the ability of the hypothalamus to detect the level of fat in the body. Fat adipose-cells secrete leptin into blood stream which causes the hypothalamus to react in 3 ways
Ventromedial satiety center sends a direct message to inhibit eating.
It signals the paraventricular nucleus to control hunger by regulating the level of blood sugar.
When leptin levels are high, the ventromedial hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system. Tiny branches of this nervous system actually end on the adipose cells. Stimulation of the adipose cells by the sympathetic neurons causes their metabolism to increase to burn off fat in the form of heat.

Body weight and the set point;

The hypothesis that each person has a set point for body fat, which determines when the ventromedial hypothalamus will initiates actions to reduce eating and increase metabolism.

Specific Hungers: like craving for certain foods which the body seems to need, mechanism still unclear.

Psychological Factors In Hunger:

They play an important role in appetite and hunger. emotions play a role in eating as in anxiety , also cultural and religious factors.


Thirst: The regulation of Water Intake
Homeostatic mechanism involved in thirst. The key regulatory centers are in the hypothalamus.

Biological Regulation of Thirst:

A drink system and a stop drinking system are regulated by different sections of the hypothalamus.
Surgical destruction of the drink system causes the animal to refuse water; destruction of the –stop drinking system- results in excessive drinking. although the control centers for thirst occupy much of the same areas as the centers for hunger, they operate separately by using different neurotransmitters. The hypothalamus uses 3 principal cues in regulating drinking :
Mouth dryness: This is the thirst cue of which we are most consciously aware.
Cell fluid levels: decreases in the total body fluids of even 1 to 2 percent produce increases in sodium concentration that are large enough to draw water out of the cells and dehydrate them .when certain specialized cells in the drink center in hypothalamus dehydrate and shrivel, they send multiple messages to correct the situation, including chemical signals to pituitary gland and secretion of ADH into blood stream also messages to cerebral cortex which initiates searching for and drinking liquids.
Total blood volume: Decrease in body water volume results in decrease of total blood volume .this is first sensed by the kidneys, which react in 2 ways;
cause blood vessels to contract for fluid compensation
creation of angiotensin in the blood stimulate thirst center in hypothalamus which send

Psychological factors in thirst –have important role.

Psychological Motives:
They are motives that are not directly related to the biological survival of the individual or the species. They are '' needs'' in the sense that the individual's happiness and well-being depend on these motives. They vary considerably in the degree to which they are influenced by experience. Some seem to be innate, whereas others seem to be entirely learned.- Including- 3 psychological motivations.
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Stimulus motivation: Seeking novel stimulus
Humans and animals, have apparently inborn motive to seek novel stimulation, which are new or changed experiences. Two theories;
Optimal Arousal Theory : It refers to the apparent human need for a comfortable level of stimulation, achieved by acting in ways that increase or decrease it. Too little stimulation is unpleasant and will motivate us to increase stimulation. And too much stimulation is also unpleasant and will motivate us to find ways to decrease it. It appears that each individual strives to maintain an optimal level of arousal in the nervous system. Arousal – refers to the overall state of alertness and activation of the person. and is linked to the activity of the brain's reticular formation, at a higher levels of arousal, to activity of the sympathetic nervous system. The
Yerkes -Dodson law- relates arousal with performance. law stating that effective performance is more likely if the level of arousal is suitable for the activity. if arousal is too low, performance will be inadequate, if it is too high, performance may become disrupted and disorganized .in general, either insufficient or excessive arousal results inefficient performance, but the optimal level of arousal is higher for simple, physically active tasks than for complex, highly skilled tasks.


Affiliation Motivation:
It is the need to be with other people and to have personal relationships. Human beings are social creaturess and the need for affiliation is present in all humans, individuals have different levels of this motive.

Two theories proposed to explain the need for affiliation;

affiliation motivation is an inborn need that is based on natural selection:
individuals learn the motive to affiliate through learning experiences.

The motive for affiliation may be related in some way to the greater chance that humans who affiliate will survive. Affiliation appears to be stronger when individuals are frightened about well-being.
There is a strong evidence that higher levels of affiliation motivation predict better psychological adjustment throughout life, perhaps in part because the motive for affiliation promotes social support when times are tough.

Achievement Motivation:

It is the psychological need to succeed in school, work, and other areas of life.
Different people have different definitions of success and different motives for wanting to achieve their version of success.

Goals and motivations are strongly related:

Elliot and Church- 1977- conducted studies on motivation among college students.( The ideas on achievement motivation in college students are applied to achievement throughout life.) they distinguished three key elements in motivations among those students;
Mastery goals: Persons with high mastery goals are intrinsically motivated to learn interesting and important new information. They enjoy challenging courses if they help them master new information and are disappointed by easy courses in which they get good grades but learn very little.
Performance-approach goals:- person with high performance- approach goals are motivated to work hard to get better grades than other students to gain the others respect o f.
Performance-avoidance goals: Persons with high performance- avoidance goals are motivated to work hard to avoid getting bad grades and looking unintelligent to others.

Each of these three types of motivational goals will activate and direct work that will help the success. and lead to different consequences. On assessment of students at the beginning and end of a college course. It was found that different types of achievement motivation were associated with different outcomes at the end of the course. Students with high mastery goals reported enjoying the coarse more at the end. While students with higher performance goals made better grades, especially if they hd low mastery goals. The students who made the lowest grades had either low perform) or they had high performance- avoidance goals ( they had only negative motivation to learn the material ). Students with high performance – avoidance goals at the start of the coarse also reported that they enjoyed the coarse content less than other students as working to avoid failure rarely makes for a positive or fruitful experience. Thus in order to understand one's achievement motivation for success in college, we need to understand both what and why they want it. Both our goals and our motives for attaining them have consequences for our success in college and enjoyment of the process. The same is true for success in other areas of life.


Fear of Success: ---It is a fear of the consequences of success, particularly the envy of others which may strain the social relationships, and can motivate people to achieve below their potential. It is more common in women than men in America particularly in college women with more traditional sex- role attitudes, as they fear criticism and rejection if they deviate from expected passive feminine roles. It is more in women with the highest self-esteem. But college women with feminist, nontraditional sex role attitudes have less fear of success.

Solomon's-Opponent-Process Theory of Acquired Motives:
It is Solomon's theory of the learning of new motives based on changes over time in contrasting feelings . Solomon explained craving such diverse things as parachute jumping, drugs and dysfunctional lovers by mean of two concepts:
Every state of positive feeling is followed by a contrasting negative feeling, and vice versa.
Any feeling—either positive or negative – that is experienced many times in succession loses some of its intensity.

Intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation:

Intrinsic motivation- refers to human motives stimulated by the inherent nature of the activity or its natural consequences. when people are motivated by the inherent nature of the activity, their pleasure of mastering something new, or the natural consequences of the activity. e.g. people who read nonfiction books that are unrelated to their work just because it is fun to learn new things. Or people who donate anonymously to charity because they wish to help people without being recognized.

Extrinsic motivation- refers to human motives activated by external rewards. the motivation is external to the activity and not an inherent part of it. e.g. the child who hates to do arithmetic homework is encouraged to so by payment of a nickel for every correct answer. Or a person who works hard to be a good employee because she wants to be admired by others rather than because of a genuine interest in the work. People who are intrinsically motivated tend to work harder and responds to challenges by working even harder. They enjoy their work more and often perform more creatively and effectively than people who are extrinsically motivated. Intrinsic motivation is shaped by our learning experiences. For example, children from families who emphasize the joy and importance of learning have more intrinsic motivation to learn in school.

Application of the concept of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations

When extrinsic rewards should be supplied by parents, teachers and employers in an effort to increase motivation. When it is wise to use extrinsic motivation in the form of positive reinforcement to increase the frequency of some behavior.—Considerable evidence suggests that, if a behavior occurs infrequently- and its intrinsic motivation can be assumed low for that individual- then extrinsic motivation can be successful in increasing the frequency of the occurrence of behavior, as in children who hate to do their math homework often will do it diligently if rewarded with additional allowance money. on the other hand, if the individual is already intrinsically motivated to perform an activity, adding extrinsic motivation may detract from the intrinsic motivation.

For many years, it was assumed that the best way to increase the intrinsic motivation was to give people choices. When people have options, they will choose activities that are intrinsically motivated to perform, and performing them will further enhance their intrinsic motivation. Recent findings suggest that this is true for individualistic Western societies.

As in many aspects of psychological life, socio-cultural factors are important in motivation.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives:

Here motives are organized in a hierarchy arranged from the most basic to the most personal and advanced. From the basic, physiological to the highest grade psychological motive—the self-actualization- 'so it combines both the biological and the psychological motives.



رفعت المحاضرة من قبل: Mostafa Altae
المشاهدات: لقد قام 5 أعضاء و 66 زائراً بقراءة هذه المحاضرة








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