Memory

MEMORY

PROF ELHAM Aljammas May 2015 L16

Memory

Three-Stage Model of Memory Forgetting and Memory Problems with Memory Memory Improvement

Memory

Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information Memory involves coding the input of the senses (visual, auditory) Memory is rarely perfect Forgetting refers to memory failure

Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory Limited capacity (7 items) Duration is about 30 seconds Long-Term Memory (LTM) is large capacity and long duration

Overview of Memory Model

Working Memory Model

Memory: Brain Structures

Where Are Memories Located?
Memory tends to be localized and distributed throughout the brain--not just the cortex.

Why Do We Forget? Five Key Theories

Decay Interference Motivated Forgetting Encoding Failure Retrieval Failure

Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued)

1. Decay Theory: memory degrades with time 2. Interference Theory: one memory competes (interferes) with another Retroactive Interference (new information interferes with old) Proactive Interference (old information interferes with new)

3. Motivated Forgetting: motivation to forget unpleasant, painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories 4. Encoding Failure: information in STM is not encoded in LTM 5. Retrieval Failure: memories stored in LTM are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)
Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued)

Types of Long-Term Memories

Long-Term Memory
Information transferred from STM to LTM is coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning REM sleep may play a key role in categorizing new items within LTM Memories retrieved from LTM are not an exact replica of the original event Memories are reconstructed and can be altered during the retrieval process

Varieties of LTM

Psychologists distinguish between two types of LTM Semantic memory refers to factual information (What is the capital of Georgia?)Episodic memory refers to autobiographical information as to where and when an event happened“I remember visiting the capital of of Georgia”

Overview of LTM

Organization of LTM
Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each itemSometimes the cues required to recall an item are not sufficient Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)

Memory Measures

Recognition is when a specific cue (face or name) is matched against LTMRecall is when a general cue is used to search memoryE.g. define the term “statistical significance”Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time. Memory is evident in savings of time to relearn the second time versus the first

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and then becomes a gradual loss of recall

Theories of Forgetting

Interference theory argues that information competes for retrieval Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information Decay theory: memory trace fades with time Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss) Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

Interference and Memory

Amnesia
Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or by trauma Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma
Point of Trauma
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia

Anatomy of Memory

Bilateral damage to the hippocampus results in anterograde amnesia (Patient H.M.)


Issues in Memory
Memory recall may involve reconstruction and thus may not be accurate Reasons for inaccuracy of memory: Source amnesia: attribution of a memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is recalled as an actual event) Sleeper effect: a piece of information from an unreliable source is initially discounted, but is recalled after the source has been forgotten Misinformation effect: we incorporate outside information into our own memories

Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued)

Eight Tips for Memory Improvement: 1. Pay attention and reduce interference 2. Use rehearsal techniques 3. Organization 4. Counteract serial position effect 5. Time management


6. Use encoding specificity principle 7. Employ self-monitoring and overlearning 8. Use mnemonic devices (e.g., method of loci, peg-word, substitute word, word associations)
Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued)

Memory Strategies

Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by organizing informationMethod of Loci: ideas are associated with a place or part of a buildingPeg-Word system: peg words are associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”)Word Associations: verbal associations are created for items to be learnedOther strategies for improving memory:Pay attention and avoid interferenceUse rehearsal techniquesImprove the organization of your memoryManage your time

Copyright

Copyright 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner.