learning

Learning

Learning :
Most of our behavior is learned .In fact the whole behavior which characterizes the civilized person and that which distinguishes a particular person as member of a race, a religion or a social group is learned .It should also be noted that man learns reaction of guilt feeling, fear and anxiety and many symptoms found in psychiatric illness.
Learning :Is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as the result of prior experience ,through the interaction of individual with his environment
This definition implies that there is acquisition of response and retention of that response once it has become a part of an organism's behavior
The important points to note in definition of learning are as follows:
1. Learning can take place without the subject's awareness.
2.The change can be in either a positive or negative direction
3. The change has to be long-lasting
4. The change has to be due to experience.

Learning and maturation :

Although learning stresses the effect of experience, but it does not mean to reduce the importance of physical maturation .Indeed ,physical development may be a necessary condition for learning to occur .
However , physical development alone is not sufficient for learning to take place, an organism must have experience.

Types of learning:

There are many types of learning; the most common are
1. Classical conditioning.
2. Operant conditioning.
3. Cognitve learning.
Classical conditioning: 1-
Classicalconditioning(also called respondent conditioning) is a process which an organism learns to respond in a particular way to a stimulus that previously did not produce the response .This stimulus which was once "neutral" becomes response producing because it is paired with another stimulus that does produce the response .


Classical conditioning pattern :(Ivan Pavlov's Experiment) The
Pavlov studied the autonomic reflexes associated with absorption; Pavlov noticed that a dog salivated not just when the food was placed in its mouth but also the mere sight of food.
A stimulus that is originally neutral and comes to be response producing is called conditioned stimulus (CS) .The stimulus that produce response on the first trail and each trail after; is called Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS).
The response elicited by (UCS) is called Unconditioned Response (UCR).
Eventually, the same type of response will occur at the presentation of the (CS). This response is called conditional response (CR)
A diagram representing classical condition appears in the following figure:
Before conditioning

UCS UCR
(Food) salivation
CS no response
(Bell)
After conditioning

UCS CR

+CS salivation
CS CR
Alone (bell) salivation

Principles of classical conditioning:

1:Extinction: is the procedure of presenting the CS alone (without the UCS)for repeated trails
2.Spontaeous recovery: A phenomenon in which ,after a period of rest following extinction ,CR reappears when the CS presented alone .The strength of the CR will not be as a great as it was originally before extinction ,but partial recovery of the CR will occur
3. Stimulus generalization :is demonstrated when a(CR) is made not only to the original (CS),but to other stimuli that are similar to the original(CS)
4.Discrimination :responding (CR) to the original stimulus (CS) but not to other similar stimuli.
5.Response generalization :is occurs when a subject gives not only the original response ,but other similar responses ,to the original(CS)
The distinguish between stimulus generalization and response generalization is: stimulus generalization is giving one response to several similar stimuli .Response generalization is giving several similar responses to one particular stimulus.

2. Operant conditioning :

Operant conditioning also called an instrumental conditioning .An instrumental response is defined most simply as a response that leads to a goal .
#.Operant conditioning is concerned with the acquisition and retention of instrumental responses as well as the elimination of undesired responses.
#The operant response is a voluntary response made by as organism. These responses may be learned in a sequence ,so that the end result is attainment of a desired goal.

conditioning pattern :(Skinner's Experiment) The Operant

In operant condition g the animal is active .Skinner experiment is: placing the rat in a box with a bar, if pressed, food will be delivered, the more it press the more food will be delivered and vise versa. Extinction happen if no food is available





Comparison of operant conditioning and classical conditioning
1. Voluntary response: instrumental conditioning involves responses that are voluntary or emitted by an organism, while classical conditioning involves responses that are involuntary or elicited from the organism.
2.Stimulus identification :In classical conditioning ,both the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are readily indentified ,and the association of the (CR)to the (CS) can be easily studied ,while the key relationship in operant conditioning is not between stimulus and response ,but rather between the response and the reinforcement.
Reinforcement :A major factor in operant conditioning in the delivery of reinforcement following responding .Several characteristics of reinforcement have been studied including:
1.Positive reinforcement :Means that the presence of a particular stimulus serves to strengthen or maintain a response
2. Negative reinforcement :Means that are removal of a particular stimulus (usually an aversive stimulus) serves to strengthen a response.
3.Punishment:A type of event in which delivery of an aversive stimulus is contingent upon a certain response

3.Cognitive learning:

A third approach to learning is known as cognitive learning . It is classified as learning with understanding rather than with conditioning. Wolfgang Kohler showed that a extended process of trial and-error may be replaced by a sudden understanding that grasps the interrelationships of a problem .This process called (insight).It means that ,the organism form cognitive structure in memory(cognitive map) which preserve and organize information about the various events that occur in the learning situation
Insight experiment of Kohler :
(Kohler put a chimpanzee(sultan). in a room with boxes and a banana hanged from the ceiling ,so the chimpanzee learned how to use the boxes in order to reach the banana)
Application of learning principles in psychotherapy
Behavior modification :based upon the principles developed in the study of learning , means techniques try to deal directly with the symptoms of abnormal personality patterns
1. Implosive therapy (flooding):A technique that involving pairing the worst possible anxiety producing stimuli with a non threatening setting
2. Aversion therapy : A technique that pairs unpleasant (aversive )stimuli with inappropriate responding .
3. Assertiveness training :Teaching individual to express emotions and beliefs in an (open ) or forthright way
4.Systemic desensitization :A step by step classical conditioning in which an anxiety-producing stimulus (CS) is paired with relaxation (UCS)