Immunization

Immunization

Vaccination
د. رائد كريم العكيلي

IMMUNIZATION

Immunization is the process by which human body can destroy or remove a specific antigen.
This ability provides protection from infectious diseases, since most microbes are identified as a foreign body by immune system.







Vaccination is one of the most-cost beneficial and cost-effective disease prevention measures.
As a result of effective and safe vaccination, smallpox has been eradicated in 1979, and polio is close to worldwide eradication.

HISTORY

Vaccination (Latin: vacca—cow) is so named because the first vaccine was derived from a virus affecting cows: the cowpox virus, a relatively benign virus that provides a degree of immunity to smallpox (the milkmaids who exposed to cowpox were immune to smallpox).
The term was coined by Edward Jenner in 1796 and adopted by Louis Pasteur in 1885.
Immunity can be induced either passively (when antibody produced by one human or other animals is transferred to another) or actively (when a person’s immune system generates the immune response).

Immunity

Specific defenses

Immunity

Passive immunity

Active immunity

Following clinical infection

Following subclinical infection

Following vaccination

Following administration of

Immunoglobulin or antiserum

Transfer of maternal

Antibodies Through milk

Transfer of maternal

Antibodies Through placenta

natural

acquired

Benefits of immunization:-
Primary protection against the development of specific infectious disease.
Post exposure protection to prevent or attenuate symptoms.
Protection for specific patient populations, including patients who are pregnant and immunosupressed.

Immunizing agents

Immunizing agents

antisera

immunuglobulins

vaccines

Passive immunity:-

Immunity conferred by an antibody produced in another host (transient). It may be acquired naturally or artificially (through an antibody-containing preparation).
Passive immunity can be induced naturally through transplacental transfer of antibodies during the last 1-2 months of pregnancy. Maternally derived antibodies can provide protection during the first few months of life. Protection for some diseases may persist for as long as a year after birth.








INDICATION FOR PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION:-
• Immunodeficient children with B-lymphocyte defects who have difficulties in making antibodies.
• Persons exposed to infectious disease or who are at imminent risk of exposure where there is no adequate time for them to develop an active immune response to vaccine (newborn of HBsAg +ve mother or post rabies exposure).






3- Persons with an infectious disease as a part of specific therapy for that disease (tetanus, diphtheria, and botulism).

4- Monoclonal antibodies can be used to prevent sever disease from RSV among ≤ 24 months of age with CLD, prevent transplant rejection, and treatment of some types of cancer and autoimmune diseases.

Active immunization:-

Active immunity is stimulation of the immune system to produce antigen-specific antibody (humoral immunity) and cellular immunity. It usually last for many years, often for lifetime. It is a prophylactic measure rather than therapeutic.







Immunological bases of vaccines:-
Vaccines can induce immunity through stimulation of antibodies formation ( humeral immunity), cellular immunity or both.
Protection induced by most of them is thought to be mediated primarily by B-lymphocytes which produce antibodies. Most B-lymphocytes responses require the assistance of T-lymphocytes, CD4 helper cells.
T-lymphocytes are responsible for cell mediated immunity

The antibody formation:-

1- Primary response: - after the first dose of vaccine.
-Latency period: (24 hours-2 weeks) antibody appears.
-Growth period: (4 days- 4 weeks) level of antibodies increased.
-Decline period: (variable) level of antibodies will decrease.





2-Secondary response: - after a suitable period of time, the second dose of the Ag (vaccine) will trigger this response which differ from the primary response by quicker raise in the antibodies (mainly IgG) with larger amount. The memory cells are responsible for this secondary response.
The long-term protection after exposure is known as immunologic memory. The vaccine produces immunologic memory similar to that acquired by having the natural disease.

Types of vaccine:-

Live attenuated vaccines:-
- Modified living organisms that are weakened.
- The organism can produce an immune response similar to natural infection, but does not produce the complications of the illness.
- Usually effective with one dose (except those used orally).
- May cause severe reaction.
- (measles, mumps, and rubella, OPV, varicella, rota virus, and live attenuated influenza vaccine, BCG, oral typhoid).

Inactivated vaccine:-

Contain whole dead organisms (killed by chemicals or heat)
It is killed but remain antigenic.
Usually less protection but it is save.
Cannot replicate.
Immune response mostly humoral.
Antibody titer diminished with time.
( injectable polio, hepatitis A)

Parts of the organism: - (acellular pertusis vaccine, HPV, and hepatitis B vaccine).

Toxoids :- ( tetanus, diphtheria).

Polysaccharide capsule:- (pneumococcal and meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines).

Polysaccharide capsule conjugated to protein carriers (Hib, pneumococcal and meningococcal conjugated vaccines).
Recombinant vaccines: - use genetically engineered organisms (recombinant hepatitis B vaccine).

Storage of vaccines

The vaccines have to retain its strength in order to be effective, so most vaccines must keep at a temperature of (+2 C° to +8 C°). We have:-
Set chain( cold chain)
We use the refrigerator for storage of vaccines. Cold accumulators should be placed in the freezer to maintain the temperature in case of breakdown of electricity and also to use them in mobile ice boxes. Empty places should be left between the packages of vaccines to allow air circulation for cooling. The temperature should checked twice daily.

Mobile chain

We use isothermic boxes or ice boxes and inside it we put cold accumulators that should cover the packages from all sides.
Exposure of inactivated vaccines to freezing temperature is the most storage error. (E.g. DTP, hepatits A, and hepatits B (cold sensitive).
Live virus vaccines, including MMR, varicella and OPV vaccines are sensitive to increased temperature (heat sensitive).
Physical appearance is not appropriate basis to determine vaccine acceptability.

Periods of maintained immunity due to vaccines

Short period (months): cholera vaccine
Two years: TAB vaccine
Three to five years: DPT vaccine
Five or more years: BCG vaccine
Ten years: yellow fever vaccine
Solid immunity: measles, mumps, and rubella vaccines.

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