
Alcohol misuse and dependence
Alcohol consumption associated with social, psychological and physical
problems constitutes misuse.
criteria for alcohol dependence
Priority of drinking over other activities .
Tolerance of effects of alcohol
Repeated withdrawal symptoms
Relief of withdrawal symptoms by further drinking
Subjective compulsion to drink
Reinstatement of drinking behaviour after abstinence
Pathogenesis
Availability of alcohol and social patterns of use appear to be the most
important factors.
Genetic factors predispose to dependence. The majority of people who
misuse alcohol do not have an associated psychiatric disorder, but a few
drink heavily in an attempt to relieve anxiety or depression.
Clinical features
The modes of presentation of alcohol misuse and complications include:
Social problems
Common features include absenteeism from work, unemployment,
marital tensions, child abuse, financial difficulties and problems with the
law, such as violence and traffic offences.
Low mood
Low mood is common since alcohol has a direct depressant effect and
heavy drinking creates numerous social problems.
Attempted and completed suicide are associated with alcohol misuse
Anxiety
People who are anxious may use alcohol as a means of relieving anxiety
in the short term and this can develop into dependence.
Conversely, alcohol withdrawal increases anxiety.
Alcohol withdrawal syndrome
Symptoms usually become maximal about 2–3 days after the last drink
and can include seizures.
The term ‘delirium tremens’ is used to describe severe alcohol
withdrawal syndrome characterized by both delirium (characteristically,
agitation and visual hallucinations) and physiological hyper-arousal
(tremor, sweating and tachycardia). It has a significant mortality and
morbidity

Hallucinations
Hallucinations (characteristically visual but sometimes in other
modalities) are common in delirium tremens. Less common is the
phenomenon called ‘alcoholic hallucinosis’, where a patient with alcohol
dependence experiences auditory hallucination in clear consciousness at a
time when they are not withdrawing from alcohol.
Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
This is a rare but important indirect complication of chronic alcohol
misuse. It is an organic brain disorder resulting from damage to the
mamillary bodies, dorsomedial nuclei of the thalamus and adjacent areas
of periventricular grey matter caused by a deficiency of thiamin (vitamin
B1).
The syndrome most commonly results from long-standing heavy drinking
and an inadequate diet but can also arise from malabsorption or even
protracted vomiting.
Wernicke’s encephalopathy (nystagmus or ophthalmoplegia with
ataxia and delirium) often presents acutely and, without prompt
treatment, can progress and become irreversible.
Korsakoff’s syndrome (severe short-term memory deficits and
confabulation) can develop chronically or acutely (with Wernicke’s).
Alcohol-related brain damage
The term alcohol-related brain damage (ARBD) is often used as a
collective description of the many brain pathologies associated with
alcohol excess, which often coexist in the same patient.
Acute alcohol intoxication causes
ataxia,
slurred speech,
emotional incontinence
aggression.
Very heavy drinkers may experience periods of amnesia for events
that occurred during bouts of intoxication, termed ‘alcoholic
blackouts’.
Established alcohol dependence may lead to ‘alcoholic dementia’,
a global cognitive impairment resembling Alzheimer’s disease, but
which does not progress and may even improve if the patient
becomes abstinent.
Heavy alcohol use can damage the brain indirectly through
1. Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome .
2. head injury.
3. hypoglycaemia

4. encephalopathy.
Effects on other organs
virtually any organ can be involved .
Presentation and consequence of chronic alcoholic misuse
Acute intoxication
Emotional and behavioural disturbance
Medical problems: hypoglycaemia, ketoacidosis, aspiration of
vomit, respiratory depression
Accidents, injuries sustained in fights
Withdrawal phenomena
Psychological symptoms: restlessness, anxiety, panic attacks
Autonomic symptoms: tachycardia, sweating, pupil dilatation,
nausea, vomiting
Delirium: agitation, hallucinations (classically ‘Lilliputian’),
illusions, delusions
Seizures
Consequences of harmful use
1. Medical
Neurological
:
peripheral
neuropathy,
cerebellar
degeneration, cerebral haemorrhage, dementia
Hepatic:
fatty change and cirrhosis, liver cancer
Gastrointestinal:
oesophagitis,
gastritis,
pancreatitis,
oesophageal
cancer,
Mallory–Weiss
syndrome,
malabsorption, oesophageal varices
Respiratory:
pulmonary tuberculosis, pneumonia
Skin:
spider naevi, palmar erythema, Dupuytren’s
contractures, telangiectasias
Cardiac:
cardiomyopathy, hypertension
Musculoskeletal:
myopathy, fractures
Endocrine and metabolic
: pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome,
hypoglycaemia, gout
Reproductive:
hypogonadism, fetal alcohol syndrome,
infertility
2.
Psychiatric and cerebral
Depression
Alcoholic hallucinosis
Alcoholic ‘blackouts’

Wernicke’s encephalopathy:
nystagmus or ophthalmoplegia with
ataxia and delirium
Korsakoff’s syndrome
: short-term memory deficits leading to
confabulation
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of alcohol excess may emerge while taking the patient’s
history, but many patients do not tell the truth about their alcohol intake.
Alcohol misuse may also present through its effects on one or more
aspects of the patient’s life.
Alcohol dependence commonly presents with withdrawal in those
admitted to hospital, as they can no longer maintain their high alcohol
intake in this setting.
Management
Support to stop drinking .
Alcohol withdrawal syndromes can be prevented, or treated once
established, with long-acting benzodiazepines. Large doses may be
required (such as diazepam 20 mg 4 times daily), tailed off over a
period of 5–7 days as symptoms subside.
Prevention of the Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome requires the
immediate use of high doses of thiamin, which is initially given
parenterally in the form of Pabrinex (two vials 3 times daily for 48
hrs, longer if symptoms persist) and then orally (100 mg 3 times
daily). There is no treatment for Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
once it has arisen. The risk of side-effects, such as respiratory
depression with benzodiazepines and anaphylaxis with Pabrinex, is
small when weighed against the potential benefits of treatment.
Acamprosate (666 mg 3 times daily) may help to maintain
abstinence by reducing the craving for alcohol.
Disulfiram (200–400 mg daily) can be given as a deterrent to
patients who have difficulty resisting the impulse to drink after
becoming abstinent. It blocks the metabolism of alcohol, causing
acetaldehyde to accumulate. When alcohol is consumed, an
unpleasant reaction follows, with headache, flushing and nausea.
Disulfiram is always an adjunct to other treatments, especially
supportive psychotherapy.
Treatment with antidepressants may be required if depression is
severe or does not resolve with abstinence.

Antipsychotics, such as chlorpromazine (100 mg 3 times daily), are
needed for alcoholic hallucinosis. Although such treatment may be
successful, there is a high relapse rate.
Prognosis
Between 80% and 90% of patients with established alcohol dependence
syndrome who embark on medically supervised detoxification will
successfully complete detoxification without encountering significant
complications. Sustaining abstinence is more challenging than achieving
it, however. Studies indicate that 1 year after successful detoxification,
only 20% of patients will remain abstinent. This figure rises to
approximately 30% for patients who are engaged with alcohol services,
and to over 40% if such specialist support is combined with supervised
disulfiram treatment.
Substance misuse disorder
Dependence on and misuse of both illegal and prescribed drugs is a major
problem worldwide.
They can be grouped as follows.
Sedatives
These commonly give rise to physical dependence, the manifestations of
which are tolerance and a withdrawal syndrome.
Drugs include benzodiazepines, opiates (including morphine, heroin,
methadone and dihydrocodeine) and barbiturates (now rarely
prescribed). Overdosage with sedatives can be fatal, primarily as a result
of respiratory depression .
Withdrawal from opiates is notoriously unpleasant, and withdrawal from
benzodiazepines and barbiturates can cause prolonged anxiety and even
hallucinations and/or seizures.
Intravenous opiate users are prone to
bacterial infections
hepatitis B
hepatitis C
HIV infection
through needle contamination. Accidental overdose is common, mainly
because of the varied and uncertain potency of illicit supplies of the drug.
The withdrawal syndrome, which can start within 12 hours of last use,
presents with
intense craving,
rhinorrhoea,
lacrimation,
yawning,
perspiration,

shivering,
piloerection,
vomiting,
diarrhoea
abdominal cramps
.
Examination reveals tachycardia, hypertension, mydriasis and facial
flushing.
Stimulants
Stimulant drugs include amphetamines and cocaine. They are less
dangerous than the sedatives in overdose, although they can cause cardiac
and cerebrovascular problems through their pressor effects.
Physical dependence syndromes do not arise, but withdrawal causes a
rebound lowering in mood and can give rise to an intense craving for
further use, especially in any form of drug with a rapid onset and offset of
effect, such as crack cocaine.
Chronic ingestion can cause a paranoid psychosis similar to
schizophrenia. A ‘toxic psychosis’ (delirium) can occur with high levels
of consumption.
Unpleasant tactile hallucinations described as ‘like ants crawling under
the skin’ (formication) may be prominent in either acute intoxication or
withdrawal.
Hallucinogens
The hallucinogens are a disparate group of drugs that cause prominent
sensory disturbances. They include
cannabis,
ecstasy,
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD),
Psilocybin (magic mushrooms)
and a variety of synthetic cannabinoids (as one of the so-called
‘legal highs’ or ‘novel psychoactive substances’).
A toxic confusional state can occur after heavy cannabis consumption.
Acute psychotic episodes are well recognised, especially in those with a
family or personal history of psychosis, and there is evidence that
prolonged heavy use increases the risk of developing schizophrenia.
Paranoid psychoses have been reported in association with ecstasy. A
chronic psychosis has also been documented after regular LSD use.
Organic solvents
Solvent inhalation (glue sniffing) is popular in some adolescent groups.
Solvents produce acute intoxication characterised by
euphoria,

excitement,
dizziness
floating sensation.
Further inhalation leads to loss of consciousness;
death can occur from the direct toxic effect of the solvent, or from
asphyxiation if the substance is inhaled from a plastic bag.
Management
The first step is to determine whether patients wish to stop using the drug.
If they do not, they can still benefit from advice about how to minimise
harm from their habit, such as how to obtain and use clean needles for
those who inject.
For those who are physically dependent on sedative drugs, substitute
prescribing (using methadone, for example, in opiate dependence) may
help stabilise their lives sufficiently to allow a gradual reduction in
dosage until they reach abstinence.
Some specialist units offer inpatient detoxification.
The drug lofexidine, a centrally acting α-agonist, can be useful in treating
the autonomic symptoms of opiate withdrawal, as can clonidine,
although this carries a risk of hypotension and is best used by specialists.
Long-acting opiate antagonists, such as naltrexone, may also have a
place, again in specialist hands, in blocking the euphoriant effects of
the opiate, thereby reducing addiction. In some cases, complete opiate
withdrawal is not successful and the patient functions better if maintained
on regular doses of oral methadone as an outpatient.
Substitute prescribing is neither necessary nor possible for the
hallucinogens and stimulants, but the principles of management are the
same as those that should accompany prescribing for the sedatives. These
include identifying problems associated with the drug misuse that may
serve to maintain it, and intervening where possible.