memory

MEMORY

PROF ELHAM Aljammas
Sept 2015
Memory
Three-Stage Model of Memory
Forgetting and Memory
Problems with Memory
Memory Improvement
Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information
Memory involves coding the input of the senses (visual, auditory)
Memory is rarely perfect
Forgetting refers to memory failure
Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system
Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory
Limited capacity (7 items)
Duration is about 30 seconds
Long-Term Memory (LTM) is large capacity and long duration

Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued)

1. Decay Theory:
memory degrades with time
2. Interference Theory: one memory competes (interferes) with another
Retroactive Interference (new information interferes with old)
Proactive Interference (old information interferes with new)
Five Theories of Forgetting (Continued)
3. Motivated Forgetting: motivation to forget unpleasant, painful, threatening, or embarrassing memories
4. Encoding Failure: information in STM is not encoded in LTM
5. Retrieval Failure: memories stored in LTM are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)

Long-Term Memory

Information transferred from STM to LTM is coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning
REM sleep may play a key role in categorizing new items within LTM
Memories retrieved from LTM are not an exact replica of the original event
Memories are reconstructed and can be altered during the retrieval process
Varieties of LTM
Psychologists distinguish between two types of LTM
Semantic memory refers to factual information (What is the capital of Georgia?)
Episodic memory refers to autobiographical information as to where and when an event happened
“I remember visiting the capital of of Georgia”

Overview of LTM

Organization of LTM

Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each item
Sometimes the cues required to recall an item are not sufficient
Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)
Memory Measures
Recognition is when a specific cue (face or name) is matched against LTM
Recall is when a general cue is used to search memory
E.g. define the term “statistical significance”
Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time. Memory is evident in savings of time to relearn the second time versus the first
Forgetting
Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information
Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and then becomes a gradual loss of recall

Theories of Forgetting

Interference theory argues that information competes for retrieval
Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information
Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information
Decay theory: memory trace fades with time
Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss)
Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent
Interference and Memory

Amnesia

Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or by trauma
Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma
Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma




Issues in Memory
Memory recall may involve reconstruction and thus may not be accurate
Reasons for inaccuracy of memory:
Source amnesia: attribution of a memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is recalled as an actual event)
Sleeper effect: a piece of information from an unreliable source is initially discounted, but is recalled after the source has been forgotten
Misinformation effect: we incorporate outside information into our own memories
Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued)
Eight Tips for Memory Improvement:
1. Pay attention and reduce interference
2. Use rehearsal techniques
3. Organization
4. Counteract serial position effect
5. Time management
Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory (Continued)
6. Use encoding specificity principle
7. Employ self-monitoring and overlearning
8. Use mnemonic devices (e.g., method of loci, peg-word, substitute word, word associations)
Memory Strategies
Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by organizing information
Method of Loci: ideas are associated with a place or part of a building
Peg-Word system: peg words are associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”)
Word Associations: verbal associations are created for items to be learned
Other strategies for improving memory:
Pay attention and avoid interference
Use rehearsal techniques
Improve the organization of your memory
Manage your time