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Ophthalmology
Dr. Muataz Hasan
GLAUCOMA
Physiology of aqueous humour:
Aqueous humour: It is transparent intraocular fluid that fills the anterior & posterior
chamber, with very low protein content than the plasma.
Function:
-Maintenance of the normal IOP.
-Nutrition to avascular structure (cornea & lens).
-One of the refractive media.
Formation:
By non-pigmented epithelium Of the ciliary body processes (pars plicata) 2 uL
/min through
1) Active secretion: By carbonic anhydrase enzyme & Na/K ATPase pump. (60% of
aqueous formation ).
2) Ultra filtration: Due to difference in the hydrostatic pressure, pressure inside the
BVs>outside.
3) Passive diffusion (through BVs walls): Osmotic pressure in chambers & CB
stroma > BVs.
Aqueous outflow
Aqueous flows from the posterior chamber via the pupil into the anterior chamber, where
it exits the eye by two main routes:

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I. Trabecular (conventional) route accounts for approximately 90% of aqueous outflow.
The aqueous flows through the trabecular meshwork into Schlemm canal and then
drained by the episcleral veins.
2. Uveoscleral (unconventional) route accounts for the remaining 10% of aqueous
outflow. The aqueous passes across the face of the ciliary body into the suprachoroidal
space and is drained by the venous circulation in the ciliary body, choroid and sclera.
INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE (IOP)
Normal IOP: It is the pressure under which the eye functions normally.
Average IOP:
-Range between 10-21mm Hg.
-With normal difference between both eyes < 4mm Hg.
Diurnal variation:
It is highest in the morning & minimum in the evening due to:
(1) Ocular massage during the day increase drainage.
(2) Venous stagnation during sleeping decrease aq. Outflow.
(3) Circadian rhythm of steroids: steroid increase at the morning & decrease at night.
Measurement of IOP:
(1) Digital palpation.
(2) Tonometry.
1. Indentation (Schiotz) tonometer.
2. Applanation tonometer (Goldman tonometry).
3. Perkins (hand held) tonometer.
4. Air puff tonometer.

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GLAUCOMA
Definition: It is pathological elevation of IOP that leads to optic nerve damage & visual
filed defect.
Classification
1- Congenital.
2-Acquired: 1) Open angle OAG.
2) Closed angle CAG.
Congenital Glaucoma (Buphthalmos) Ox-eye
Definition: It is increase IOP leading to optic n. damage due to "congenital anomalies"
closing the angle of the anterior chamber. Symptoms & signs appear between birth &1st
year.
Clinical picture:
- Symptoms: given by the mother.
1) Early: Lacrimation, photophobia, blepharospasm .
2) Late:
Large eye (buphthalmos or ox eye) due to elasticity of outer coat.
Hazy cornea leads to defective vision.
-Signs:
The eye will distend with increase IOP as the outer coat is still elastic.
(1) Cornea:
Diameter: increase 12-16 mm.

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Curvature: decrease (more flat).
Transparency: decrease (Hazy & oedematous).
Haab’s striae (horizontal lines)
(2) Sclera: blue (being thin, showing the underlying choroid)
(3) Anterior chamber: Deep as the lens becomes flat & displaced backwards.
(4) IOP: High.
(5) Fundus: cupping & atrophy of the optic disc occur late.
(6) Gonioscopy : Abnormalities of the angle.
Diagnosis:
1) Measurement of corneal diameter.
2) Gonioscopy.
3) Measurement of IOP.
Differential diagnosis: from other causes of:
(1)Corneal enlargement in:
Megalocornea & Congenital myopia: No signs of buphthalmos.
(2) Corneal clouding: As
-Keratitis from intrauterine infection.
-Traumatic corneal oedema .
-Metabolic disorder: mucopolysacharidosis
-Corneal dystrophies.
-Cornea planna.
(4) Watering of the eye in child:
-Buphthalmos.
-Congenital nasolacrimal duct obstruction
-Viral conjunctivitis (ophthalmia neonatorum)
-Corneal abrasion.

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Treatment:
Mainly surgical. The early interference the better the prognosis.
(A)Medical: to decrease IOP as preoperative preparation.
1- Systemic CAI e.g. Acetazolamide (Diamox).
2- Topical CAI e.g. Dorzolamide.
3- Beta blocker (Timolol 0.25% twice daily).
(B) Surgical:
(1) Early cases: Corneal diameter < 13mm.
Canal of Schlemm is present.
i)
Clear cornea Goniotomy.
ii)
Hazy cornea Trabeculotomy.
(2)Late cases: Corneal diameter ≥13 mm. with Schlemm's canal abscent or fibrose
Trabeculectomy.
Primery open angle glaucoma
*Definition: Bilateral, Asymmetrical, non- congestive increase of IOP in absence of
angle closure Leading to optic nerve damage & visual field defect.
*Incidence:
*Age: above 50 years.
*Sex: Equal.
*Bilateral: But one eye precedes the other.
*Risk factors:
*Positive family history.
*Race: More common in black.
*Ocular diseases: myopia &CRVO.

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*Systemic diseases: DM, vasospastic disorder, migraine.
*Ocular hypertension.
Signs:
1- Increase IOP.
2- Glaucomatous optic disc cupping.
3- Visual field defects.
4- Gonioscopy OPEN ANGLE
*Normal cup / disc ratio (C/D) is 0.3 or less.
The cause of glaucomatous cupping may be:
(1)Mechanical theory: increase IOP Backward bowing of lamina cribrosa, as it's the
weakest part of sclera + Compression & degeneration of optic nerve fibers.
(2)Ischemic (Vascular) theory: Sclerosis of vessels.
Visual Field changes
Cause: due to optic nerve fibers damage caused by ischemia & mechanical pressure
(field defect appears if 40% of optic nerve fibers are lost).
1. Early changes: include increased variability of responses in areas that subsequently
develop defects, and slight asymmetry between the two eyes.
2. paracentral scotoma: can form at a relatively early stage, often superior-nasally.
3. Nasal step: represents a difference in sensitivity above and below the horizontal
midline in the nasal field.
4. Temporal wedge: is less common than a nasal step but has similar implications.
5. Arcuate defects: develop as a result of coalescence of paracentral scotomas. They
typically develop downward or upward extensions from the blind spot (‘baring of the
blind spot’ around fixation. With time, they tend to elongate circumferentially along
the distribution of arcuate nerve fibers.

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6. A ring scotoma: develops when superior and inferior arcuate defects become
continuous, usually in advanced glaucoma.
7. End-stage changes: are characterized by a small island of central vision, typically
accompanied by a temporal island.
*Testing of visual field with perimetry which is of 2 types:
a. Kinetic: presentation of a moving stimulus of fixed size &Intensity from non-
seeing area until it is perceived.
b. Static: It is involves presentation of non-moving stimuli of varying intensity in the
same position.
Treatment
a. Medical.
b. Laser trabeculoplasty.
c. Surgical (Trabeculectomy).
(A)Medical treatment
Topical treatment:
1) B-Blockers:
-Examples: *Timolol maleate 0.25-0.5%
*Betaxolol HCI (Betoptic).
-Administration: Every 12 hours.
-Action: decrease aqueous formation (Block B receptors on ciliary body epithelium).
2) Prostaglandin Analogues:
-Example: as *Latanoprost (xalatan 0.005%).
*Travoprost ( Travatan).
-Action: increase uveoscleral out flow.
-Administration: once at night

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3) Topical CAIs:
-Example: Dorzolamide (Trusopt 2%).
-Administration: 2 times / day.
4) Alpha-2 agonist:
-Example: adrenaline 1-2 %, Brimonidine, apraclonidine
-Action: Alpha-2 agonists decrease IOP by both decreasing aqueous secretion and
enhancing uveoscleral outflow.
5) Miotics:
-Example: pilocarpine 1-4% drops
- Action: increase the trabecular out flow.
(B) Laser Trabeculoplasty
*Indications:
1-With medical treatment: (to avoid poly pharmacy).
2- Especially with pigmentary glaucoma.
Types:
a) Argon Laser Trabeculoplasty (ALT): uses laser burns to achieve IOP reduction.
b) Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty (SLT): uses Nd:YAG laser to selectively target
melanin pigment in trabecular meshwork
(C) Surgical treatment:
External fistulizing operations:
(1) trabeculectomy
(2) Drainage Shunts using episcleral explants.
*Indication: if
(1) Medical treatment fails to control IOP.
(2) Significant side effect of medical treatment.

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(3) Deterioration of field.
(4) The patient is poor.
(5) Young patient.
Closed angle glaucoma =Acute congestive glaucoma
Definition: It is acute increase of IOP due to sudden closure of a narrow angle by the iris,
occurs in attacks.
Incidence:
-Bilateral (one eye before the other).
-More common in females.
- > 40 years old.
Etiology:
Predisposing factors:
Narrow angle (commonly seen with shallow A.C.) as in:
1- Hypermetropes (small eyes).
2- Old age (due to progressive increase in lens thickness which pushes the iris
forward).
Clinical picture (Stages):
(1) Latent (asymptomatic) stage:
-By slit lamp: Shallow AC& the periphery of the iris close to the cornea.
-Treatment: Prophylactic laser peripheral iridotomy to decrease the risk of ACG.

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(2)(Intermittent = Subacute) Prodromal stage:
* Characterized by transient mild attacks of increase IOP
* Transient attacks of:
-Headache (pressure on the coat).
-Blurred vision (hazy cornea).
-Colored haloes around light.
*Signs:
1) No or mild congestion.
2) Pupil: Slightly dilated, sluggish reaction.
3) IOP: Moderately elevated (30mm).
* Diagnosis:
Normal IOP (in between attack) & diagnosis depends on:
a) History: transient attacks after prolonged stay in the dark or excitement.
b) Gonioscopy: Revealed narrow angle.
c) Provocative tests:
(3) Acute (congestive) stage:
*Symptoms:
1- Headache & Ocular pain.
2-Diminution of vision (Rapid & marked) hand movement or perception of Light:
Due to
a) Corneal & lens oedema.
b) Optic n. ischemia by mechanical pressure.
3- Lacrimation, photophobia, blepharospasm & colored haloes around light due to
corneal oedema.

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Signs: seen with slit-lamp:
a- Ciliary flush due to injection of limbal and conjunctival blood vessels.
b- IOP severely elevated (>50mmHg).
c- Corneal oedema with epithelial vesicles.
d- Shallow AC + Iris bombé + peripheral iridocorneal touch.
e- Aqueous humour flare (protein) + cells.
f- Pupil vertically oval + fixed in mid-dilated position, not reactive to light and
accommodation
Medical treatment
(1) Topical treatment
1) Miotics:
-Examples: pilocarpine nitrate 2-4% drops
-Action:
1-Contraction of sphincter pupillae muscle leads to
Pulls the iris away from the angle.
2-Widens the iris crypts increase drainage.
2) Other topical drugs:
1- Topical B-blockers: e.g. timolol maleate 0.25% - 0.5% .
2- Topical CAIs e.g. dorzolamide.
3- Alpha-2 agonist: e.g. apraclonidine
4- Topical steroids: decrease peripheral anterior synechia (PAS) & iritis.
(2)General treatment
1) Analgesics & Antiemetics e.g. NSAID or morphine.
2) Carbonic Anhydrase inhibitors (CAI) e.g. Acetazolamide.

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Surgical treatment
(1)Peripheral iridectomy:
-Principle: create a communication between posterior & anterior chamber, so
prevent future closure of angle.
-Indications: (i) Prodromal stage.
(ii) Acute stage with no PAS.
(iii) Prophylactic treatment in the other eye.
IT is done either by:
(i) Surgery.
(ii) Laser iridotomy
(2) External fistulizing operation: e.g. trabeculectomy