Chest Lectures Pr. Dr.Waleed Mustafa Consultant Thoracic & Vascular Surgeon
Objectives The students should know the followings:-1-Surgical anatomy of the chest wall , lung ,pleura and mediastinum .2-Diseases affecting pleura (From surgical point of view ) .3-Indications , contraindications and complications of bronchoscopy .4-Chest trauma -----indications for surgery 5-Indications , contraindications , technique and complications of chest tube thoracostomy .6-Hydatid disease in Iraq .7-Surgery in bronchiectasis , lung abscess and TB.8-Carcinoma of the bronchus aetiology , presentation , investigations and modalities of treatment9-Chest wall deformities .10-Thoracoscopy indications and complications .Anatomy The respiratory system consists of the :Nose , Nasal passage , Nasopharynx , larynx ,Trachea ,Bronchi & lungs . The chest wall is covered by Pectoralis muscle anteriorly while posteriorly both (Latissmus dorsi and serratus muscle) are encountered .There are (12) pairs of ribs ,Seven of which are termed (True Ribs) as the cartilages articulate with the sternum.The lower five ribs are termed (False Ribs) which are not connected directly to the sternum.The eleventh and the twelfth ribs are termed (Floating Ribs ) Because they are not attached anteriorly .
The sternum is divided into the Manubrium .Body and xiphoid . The clavicle articulates with the sternum and Ist.costal cartilage .Muscles associated with the intercostals space are , The external intercostals ,internal intercostals and transversus thoracic(inner most intercostal) muscles .There are (11) intercostals spaces containing a vein ,an artery and a nerve which course along the lower edge of each rib .
Pleura is a fibro elastic membrane lines by squamous epithelial cells .It consists of two portions:-1-Parietal pleura which lines the thoracic cavity and it is divided into four parts a- Costal pleura which lies against the ribs &intercostal muscles b-Diaphragmatic pleura which covers the upper surface of the diaphragm.C-Mediastinal pleura which lies against the mediastinum .D-Cervical pleura which covers the dome of the thoracic space 2-Visceral pleura which intimately invests the lung .
Costo –phrenic angle is the angle between the costal &diaphragmatic pleura.Cardio –phrenic angle is the angle between the heart &diaphragmatic pleuraInferior pulmonary ligament is the anterior & posterior reflection of the pleura between the root of the lung & the diaphragmatic surface The function of the pleura is to maintain the environment of the pleural space in which the lung is function.
The bronchial arteries originate from the aorta or the intercostals arteries . Pulmonary veins drain into the left atrium .No bronchial veins. The Lymph nodes found along the lobar branches are termed(hilar LN).There are also Tracheal and tracheo-bronchial LN.Phrenic nerve located anteriorly while the vagus nerve located posteriorly in the thoracic cavity .
The Trachea is a fibro muscular tube (10-12 cm) in length and (13-22 mm) in width. Supported laterally and ventrally by (16-22) U-shaped hyaline cartilages . The trachea originates at the level of the cricoid cartilage down to its bifurcation at the level of the sternal angle where it divided into right and left main bronchi .The spur at the bifurcation is termed the (Carina) . The right main bronchus is (12-16 mm) in diameter ,the left is ( 10-16 mm) in diameter .The right main bronchus deviates less from the axis of trachea than the left ,this explains why foreign body is more common in the right main bronchus .The main bronchi are divided into the segmental bronchi which end into the terminal bronchiole which divided into the respiratory bronchiole which terminate into the alveoli .
Clinical manifestations of respiratory dieases 1-Cough 2-Dyspnea or breathlessness , it is an unpleasant subjective awareness of the sensation of breathing .3-Chest pain in diseases with pleural or chest wall involvement .4-Haemoptysis . Investigations :-1-Chest X-Ray 2-CT chest 3-MRI mediastinum 4-US chest to detect any effusion .5-Pleural aspiration .6-Bronchoscopy flexible or rigid .
Pulmonary Function Tests 1-Tidal Volume (TV) Is the amount of air inspired or expired per single breath . 2-Functional residual Capacity (FRC) The amount of gas contained in the lung at the end of quiet expiration . 3-Inspiratory reserve volume;-Is reached when the patient makes a maximum inspiration and increased the lung volume ,compared with that contained at the peak tidal volume. 4-Vital capacity :-The volume expired from maximal inspiration to maximal expiration. 5-residual volume :-Is the amount of air remaining in the lung after maximal expiration.8—FEV1 Is the volume of air expired in one second .
Diseases of the pleura 1-Spontaneous pneumothorax Is the accumulation of air inside the pleural cavity , occurring without any known etiology .More in males ,more on the right side .It can be bilateral
Causes 1- Ruptured pulmonary bleb.2-Ruptured of a cystic defect in the pleura.3-Teared visceral pleura 4-No cause can be demonstrated in (15-20%).Complications:-1-pleural effusion2-empyema 3-tension pneumothorax which leads to mediastinal shift &circulatory collapse.4-Respiratory failure in elderly patient with COAD (COPD) . Treatment :-1-Bed rest ,O2 administration &observation in limited pneumothorax.2-Aspiration3-Chest tube (thoracostomy tube or ICD intercostal drain in a safety triangle which is bounded by pectoralis muscle anteriorly &lattismus muscle posteriorly and the superior border of the nipple.in the fifth intercostal space just anterior to the mid axillary line to avoid the long thoracic nerve .4-bronchoscopy is indicated if the lung fail to expand 5-Chemical pleurodesis.by injecting sclerosing agent as Tetra cycline 6-Surgery pleurectomy by thoracotomy or thoracoscopically if the lung fail to re expand
2-Spontaneous haemothorax Is the presence of blood inside the pleural cavity Causes:-1-pulmonary causes ----------TB , AV malformation2-pleural causes -----------torn vascular adhesion3-pulmonary malignancy ….primary or metastatic 4-blood dyscrasia ……………..hemophilia5-abdomina; pathology haemo peritoneum6-thoracic causes ………ruptured great vessels
Clinical featuresdyspnea , chest pain ,syncopesigns of hypovolaemic shock blood inside the pleural cavity may leads to deposition of fibrin on the pleural surface leading to fibrosis (trapped lung syndrome) . Treatment 1-Resuscitation 2-Tube thoracostomy 3-May needs thoracotomy if excessive bleeding initial bleeding more than 1.5 literOr continuous bleeding more than 200 ml/hour for more than 4 hours
3-Chylo –thorax Is the presence of lymph in the pleural space CausesA-Congenital atresia of the thoracic duct , birth traumaB-Traumatic C-Neoplastic malignancy D-Infection TBDiagnosis milky pleural effusion that does not clot and contains fat , fat soluble vitamins & antibodies Treatment 1-Conservative consists of insertion of tube thoracostomy to drain the effusion , correction of the fluid and electrolytes with nutritional supplement.2-Surgery consists of ligation of the thoracic duct if the effusion continues for more than two weeks .
4-Pleural effusion Is the accumulation of fluid in the pleural space excessive transudation or exudation of the interstitial fluid from the pleural surface. It is signify pleural or systemic disease .Its effect depends on its size (mild , moderate or massive ) & the state of the underlying lung .It is classified as transudate when the protein content is less than 3g% or exudates when protein content is more than 3 gm % .Clinically patients will present with dyspnea & pleuritic chest pain Radio logically (concave meniscus sign)Transudate as in CHFExudate as in malignancy Treatment :-1-aspiration (thoracentesis) 2-tube thoracostomy 3-chemical pleurodesis 4-pleuectomy to remove the pleura to stop the effusion.
5-Empyaema Is the accumulation of pus in the pleural space , it passes into three stages 1-Acute phase with the clinical manifestation of fever & toxicity .2-Transitional phase with the increased turbidity of the fluid & decrease the size of the lung .3-Chronic phase with the pleural thickening ,decrease amount of the fluid & the development of the trapped lung syndrome .
Tube Thoracostomy Tube thoracostomy or Chest Tube or ICD(Intercostal drain) Is a flexible hollow plastic tube that is inserted through the chest wall into the pleural space and connected to a bedside drainage container Indications:-1-Pnemothorax
2-Pleural Effusion This effusion may be A-Empyema
2-Hemothorax Traumatic or Malignant Effusion3-Hydro thorax 4-Chylothorax 5-Thoracic Operation (Tube Thoracostomy without trocar ) .On the lung or Mediastinum Or The esophagus 6-Postoperative (Collection or Infected space ).7-malignant Effusion drainage and giving medication through it.
Contra-Indications:-Refractory coagulopathy Lack of cooperation by the patientDiaphragmatic Hernia Lobar EmphysemaSurgical Emphysema without underlying pneumothorax Technique:-LA or GA Surgical Set The tube may be inserted in the Emergency Dept. , ICU ,Operating Room or General Hospital Room Size infantile , pediatric ,adult (8 FG ------ 40 FG) Roughly ---- the size of adult index finger Sites ----Safe zone The free end of the tube ------underwater seal below the level of the chest Chest radiograph to be taken to check the location of the drainThe tube stays in for as long as there is air or fluid
How long is a chest tube used ?The tube remains in place until the lung is re-expand or the fluid is drained. Occasionally the patient require more than one chest tube Indications for Removal Clinical Mechanical Radiological
Complications:-1-Minor Complications:-Severe pain during placement Subcutaneous hematoma or seroma Anxiety Shortness of breath (Dyspnea) Cough ( Rapid drainage of fluid )
2-Major Complications Hemorrhage ---haemothorax or haemoptysis Infection Reexpansion pulmonary edema Injury to the liver , spleen , diaphragm .Injury to the Thoracic aorta & the heart
Bronchoscopy Bronchoscopy Looking into the living lungs (Chevalier Jackson 1928)Today with the major advance in technology View the fine details of the end bronchial anatomy Diagnosis of the disease Treating diseases It is the visualization of the air way using either rigid Bronchoscope (GA) or the flexible (Fiber optic Bronchoscope ) (LA) or both simultaneously .Through which we can remove FB , take BAL , brushing lesions &Trans bronchial Biopsy .
HISTORY Gustav Killian in 1897 succeeded in removing aspirated pork bone from the bronchus of a 63 –year-old farmer under cocaine anesthesia .He used external light source , a head mirror , esophagoscope and forceps to remove the bone .He became famous & his clinic attracted patients from far and wide for his expertise in removing different kind of (FB) such as bones ,beans ,buttons ,coins & tin whistle . Gustav Killian (The father of bronchoscopy ) , was appointed professor of ENT at the university of Freiburg in 1892 . Gustav Killian Bronchoscope , external light source
Bronchoscopy rapidly developed into a science (with the creation of a better instruments and techniques )Chevalier Jackson Founded philadelphia school of bronchoesophalogology Jackson‘s monograph first published in 1950 Chevalier Jackson’s Bronchoscope with a small distal bulb & built –in suction tube
H.H.Hopkins English physicist developed the rod-lens optical telescopes which could be used with the rigid bronchoscope Early in the 1960s Shigeto Ikeda devised a means to replace the small electric bulb with glass fibers capable of transmitting brighter light from an outside source. He presented the first flexible bronchoscope at the 1966 International Congress on Diseases of the Chest in Copenhagen.
At the end of the 1980s, Asahi Pentax replaced the fiberoptic bundle with a charge-coupled sensor at the tip of the scope. This videobronchoscope allowed the bronchoscopist to look at a monitor screen instead of through the eyepiece of the scope
Rigid Bronchoscopes Hollow metal tubes , of variables sizes down to ( 3mm -9.5 mm) and variable length (20-40 cm) .These instruments usually have illumination at their tips as well as side holes near the tip to facilitate ventilation .They are always inserted trans orally .General anesthesia is recommended for its introduction .
i.e. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Indications for Rigid Bronchoscopy1-Hemoptysis2-Tracheal stenosis.3-Foreign body removal .4-All bronchological interventions such as bougienage , removal of threads & post intervention hemoptysis.5-Confirmation of cell type in case of previous , non diagnostic fiberoptic bronchoscopy .6-Laser treatment 7-Removal of tumor 8-Removal of excess fibrin , mucous plug .9-Bronchography .10-Autofluorescence and photodynamic diagnosis .
Endoscopey for the museum
Bronchoscopy ( Adult Set )Bronchoscopy (Pediatric Set )
Foreign Body (RMB)
Flexible Bronchoscopy It consists of Control section , a flexible insertion tube & a bending tip .The control section contains the eye piece ,control lever and a channel for aspiration or for introduction of solution and instruments.
These flexible bronchoscopes have variable outside diameter (1.8 -6 mm) with inner channel ranging from (1.8 -2.6 mm) . Highly maneuverable and can reach areas in the endo bronchial tree not accessible to the rigid bronchoscopes .Can be inserted either transorally or transnasally or through the rigid bronchoscope.We have the Infantile , Pediatric , adult types and the Video –Bronchoscopes