
The abdomen
"From Macleod's 13"
Symptoms analysis
#Pain
((SOCRATES – SIROD CASP))
Site
Onset
Character (colicky, stabbing, constricting, dull, …)
Radiation
Associated symptoms (sweating, vomiting, breathlessness, others)
Timing (duration, course, pattern, special time of occurrence)
Exacerbating (exertion, special food, hunger) and relieving factors (rest, meal, drugs)
Severity
Frequency
Previous episodes
#Fever
Duration
Continuous or intermittent?
Presence of shivering, rigor, chills
Associated symptoms (sweating, loss of appetite, fatigue, aches)
#Vomiting
((3A-3C-2P-FRT))
Timing (morning, late evening, meal time)
Amount
Presence of blood, mucus, pus
Color (bile stained, faeculent)
Consistency
Content (food content, others)
Frequency
Projectile or not
Aggravating factors (medications, meal, others)
Relieving factors
Associated with of nausea, dyspepsia, abdominal pain
#Diarrhea
Acute, chronic, intermittent

Frequency
Consistency (watery, semisolid, solid)
Volume (bulky, small amount)
Containing blood, mucus, pus
Presence of tenesmus, urgency, incontinence
Presence of abdominal pain
Disturb sleep (organic cause of diarrhea)
History of alcohol, drugs, GI surgery, GI diseases
Associated with fever or vomiting
#Constipation
Chronic or resent onset
Last time of defecation
Number of bowel empting each week
Time spent straining at stool
Shape of the stool (pellet-like)
Any change in drug therapy
Associated with abdominal pain, pain on defecation, rectal bleeding
#Dysphagia
Painful or painless
Intermittent or progressive
Duration
Previous episodes
Occur with solids, liquids, both
The level of food sticking
Associated with regurgitation, heartburn, complete obstruction
#Heartburn
Duration
Severity
Frequency
Persistent or not?
Associated with food or drugs
History of GI disorders
There is shortness of breath, poor appetite, weight loss
Presence of nausea, vomiting, difficulty of swallowing, sweating
#Hematemesis and melena
Fresh blood or coffee ground color

Amount of blood
Presence of itching, pain
Presence of clots
Mixed with food or feces
Bleeding from other sites
Previous history of dyspepsia, peptic ulcer, GI bleeding, liver disease
History of alcohol, NSAID, corticosteroids
#Jaundice
Color of stool and urine
Itching
Upper abdominal pain (in hepatitis, cholangitis)
Altered bowel habit
Previous jaundice or hepatitis
Appetite and weight change
Any cause of liver disorders
(drugs, alcohol, blood transfusion, sexual and contact history,
travel history, immunization, skin tattooing, family history)
Important Causes
#Causes of abdominal pain
Common alimentary causes
o Peptic ulcer
o Biliary colic
o Acute pancreatitis
o Renal colic
o Appendicitis
o Inflammatory bowel disease
o Gastroenteritis
Non-alimentary causes
o Myocardial infarction
o Dissecting aortic aneurysm
o Acute vertebral collapse
o Cord compression
o Pleurisy
o Herpes zoster
o Diabetic ketoacidosis
o Salpingitis or tubal pregnancy
o Torsion of the testis/ ovary

#Cusses of dysphagia
Oral (tonsillitis, pharyngitis)
Neurological (bulbar or pseudo-bulbar palsy)
Neuromuscular (achalasia, myasthenia gravis)
Mechanical (esophageal cancer, systemic sclerosis, benign strictures)
#Causes of vomiting
Common alimentary causes
o Intestinal obstruction
o GERD
o Viral gastroenteritis
o Appendicitis
o Gastroparesis
o Peptic ulcer
o Inflammatory bowel disease
Non-alimentary causes
o Neurological (migraine, raised intracranial pressure, vasovagal syncope)
o Drugs (chemotherapy, alcohol, opioids, others)
o Metabolic/endocrine (pregnancy, renal or liver failure, diabetic ketoacidosis)
o Psychological (anorexia nervosa, bulimia)
#Causes of abdominal distention
Fat (obesity)
Flatus (obstruction, pseudo-obstruction)
Feces (obstruction, constipation)
Fluid (ascites, tumors, distended bladder)
Fetus (check last menstrual period)
Functional (bloating, irritable bowel syndrome)
#Causes of ascites
Hepatic cirrhosis with portal hypertension (transudate)
Intra-abdominal malignancy with peritoneal spread (exudate)
Uncommon
(pancreatitis, TB, hypo-proteinaemia, right heart failure, hepatic vein occlusion)
#Causes of diarrhea
Acute diarrhea
o Infective gastroenteritis (C.difficile)
o Drugs (antibiotics)
Chronic diarrhea
o Irritable bowel syndrome

o Inflammatory bowel disease
o Colorectal cancer
o Laxative abuse
o Malabsorption
o Other causes
(hyperthyroidism, small bowel resection, autonomic neuropathy)
#Causes of constipation
Lack of fiber in diet
Irritable bowel syndrome
Intestinal obstruction
Drugs (opioids, iron)
Metabolic/endocrine (hypothyroidism, hypercalcaemia)
Immobility (stroke, Parkinson)
#Causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding
Peptic ulcer
Mallory-Weiss
Esophagitis, gastritis, duodenitis
Esophageal or gastric cancer
Vascular malformation
Esophago-gastic varices
#Causes of rectal bleeding
Hemorrhoids
Anal fissure
Colorectal cancer
Colorectal polyps
Inflammatory bowel disease
Ischemic colitis
Complicated diverticular disease
Vascular malformation
#Causes of jaundice
Increased bilirubin production
o Hemolysis (unconjugated hyper-bilirubinaemia)
Impaired bilirubin excretion
o Congenital (Gilbert's syndrome)
o Hepatocellular (viral hepatitis, cirrhosis, drugs, autoimmune hepatitis)
o Intrahepatic cholestasis (drugs, primary biliary cirrhosis)
o Extrahepatic cholestasis (gallstones, cancer of pancreas, cholangiocarcinoma)

#Causes of hepatomegaly
هام جدا
Chronic parenchymal liver disease
o Alcoholic liver disease
o Hepatic steatosis
o Autoimmune hepatitis
o Viral hepatitis
o Primary biliary cirrhosis
Malignancy
o Primary hepatocellular cancer
o Secondary metastatic cancer
Right heart failure
Hematological disorders
o Lymphoma
o Leukemia
o Myelofibrosis
o Polycythemia
Rarities
o Amyloidosis
o Sarcoidosis
o Budd-Chiari syndrome
o Glycogen storage disorders
#Causes of splenomegaly
هام جدا
Hematological disorders
o Lymphoma & lymphatic leukemia
o Myeloproliferative diseases, polycythemia rubra vera, myelofibrosis
o Hemolytic anemia, congenital spherocytosis
Portal hypertension
Infections
o Glandular fever
o Malaria, kala azar
o Brucellosis, TB, salmonellosis
o Bacterial endocarditis
Rheumatologic conditions
o Rheumatoid arthritis (Felty's syndrome)
o SLE
Rarities
o Amyloidosis
o Sarcoidosis
o Glycogen storage disorders

#Causes of hepatosplenomegaly
Lymphoma
Myeloproliferative diseases
Cirrhosis with portal hypertension
Amyloidosis
Sarcoidosis
Glycogen storage disorders
#Causes of palpable swellings in the groin
Inguinal hernia
Femoral hernia
Lymph node
Skin and subcutaneous lumps (lipoma, sebaceous cyst)
Hydrocele of spermatic cord
Undescended testis
Femoral aneurysm
Psoas abscess
Important notes
#Features of chronic liver disease
General (skin pigmentation, hair loss, bruising)
Eye (jaundice)
Chest (gynecomastia in men, breast atrophy in women)
Upper half of the body (spider naevi)
Hands (leukonychia, palmer erythema, clubbing)
Abdomen (splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, caput medusae)
Genitalia (testicular atrophy)
Legs (edema, hair loss)
#Signs of liver failure
Fetor hepaticus
Flapping tremor
Metal status (drowsy, confusion, disorientation, unresponsive coma)
Late neurological features
(extensor planter responses, spasticity & extension of arms and legs)

#Example of drug induced gastrointestinal conditions
Weight gain (oral corticosteroids)
Dyspepsia & GI bleeding (NSAID, Aspirin)
Nausea (anti-depressant, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
Diarrhea (antibiotics, PPI)
Constipation (opioids)
Jaundice (overdose of paracetamol, isoniazid, rifampicin)
Liver fibrosis (methotrexate)
#Gastrointestinal alarm features
Persistent vomiting
Dysphagia
Fever
Weight loss
GI bleeding
Anemia
Painless, watery, high volume diarrhea
Nocturnal symptoms disturbing sleep
#Indications for rectal examination
Suspected appendicitis, pelvic abscess, peritonitis, lower abdominal pain
Tenesmus, ano-rectal pain ,diarrhea, constipation
Rectal bleeding
Unexplained weight loss
Mass
Malignancy
Assessment of prostate
Instead of vaginal examination
Fever of unknown origin
Abdominal, pelvic or spinal trauma