epistaxis

THE NOSE AND PARANASAL SINUSES

Dr. Ali A. Muttalib Mohammed Assistant Professor/ Consultant Otolaryngologist Head of ENT Dept, College of Medicine, University of Mosul In charge, Mosul Centre, Iraqi Board of Otolaryngology
Undergraduate, The Nose, 2013/2014

Is bleeding per nose. It is a known disease of unknown aetiology.

Epistaxis from littles area


Aetiology The two most common causes of epistaxis are idiopathy and trauma. I. Local causes 1. Idiopathic. 2. Trauma: Direct injury as nose picking or nasal operations. 3. Inflammatory: Acute rhinitis, sinusitis and allergy. 4. Anatomical and structural abnormalities: Septal deviation may disturb air flow and causes turbulence of airflow thereby resulting in mucosal drying and epistaxis. 5. Neoplastic as angioma and carcinoma. 6. Environmental: Airconditions and industrial fumes.

II. Systemic causes Cardiovascular as hypertension: Here the nasal mucosa is often atrophic and cracks easily which eventually leads to exposure of the arteriosclerotic vessel producing severe bleeding during a hypertensive episode. Haematologic: Haemophilia, leukaemia and ITP. Drugs: Aspirin and anticoagulants as warfarin.


II. Systemic causes Diseases of blood vessel as Osler,s disease ( Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia). This is a hereditary disease characterized by the formation of abnormal capillaries in the mucous membrane of the nose. It is treated by radiation, Laser therapy and surgical excision of the mucous membrane of the nose with replacement of a split thickness skin graft.

Osler Weber,s disease

Clinical Picture 1. Anterior epistaxis: It is the most common. It arises from Little,s area to the anterior nares and occurs in young and middle aged patients. Here the bleeding is trivial, easy to stop and tends to recur. 2. Posterior epistaxis: Its less common. Arises far back in the nose and may flow back to the pharynx and occurs in elderly hypertensive patients. Here the bleeding is profuse and extremely difficult to stop.


Management A-Arrest of haemorrhage. R-Resuscitate the patient: A base line Hb is withdrawn and IV drip is commenced. If necessary plasma and blood transfusion should be given to restore the circulation. T-Treat the cause.


Arrest of the Bleeding by 1-Pressure on the nostrils in a sitting position, the mouth is kept open and swallowing is forbidden. The patient is instructed to breath quietly through the mouth with the head leant forwards. 2-Ice packs on the nasal bridge. 3-Cauterization of the bleeding point: Either chemical cautery using silver nitrate or trichloroacetic acid or electrical cautery. GA is some times required to identify the bleeding point and in children.

Correct Incorrect

4. If epistaxis can not be controlled and the bleeding continues a pack may be needed. a. Anterior packing: Using one inch ribbon gause impregnated with paraffin or Vaseline. The pack may be left for 24-48 hours. The first part of the pack is inserted along the floor of the nose as far posteriorly as possible her layer is placed on top sequentially.

. Systemic antibiotics should be used to prevent secondary bacterial infection as sinusitis and otitis media. Sedation is necessary whenever a nasal pack is in situ, not only because the pack is uncomfortable, but the added anxiety of epistaxis may elevate the blood pressure.

Anterior pack

Modification from this picture- have both packing ends towards the front



b. Postnasal packing: Continued haemorrhage despite an anterior packing is probably a result of bleeding from the posterior branches of the sphenopalatine artery which necessitate the insertion of a postnasal pack. It is done under GA and prepared from a piece of gause soacked wit paraffin or any antiseptic solution. Tapes are taken anteriorly through each nostril from the posterior pack around the columella. Another tape is tied around the middle of the pack and picked up from the patient mouth.

A further anterior pack is placed against the posterior pack. The posterior pack stays in place for 48 hours. Variation of the pack is to use a urinary catheter to fill the nasopharynx which can be done without aneasthesia.

Posterior pack

Posterior Pack


5. Surgical Treatment: If despite anterior and posterior packing, the bleeding continues or recurs , surgical intervention is indicated. a-Submucosal resection of the nasal septum in case of septaal spur to induce fibrosis at Little,s area. b-Arterial ligation: The appropriate vessel is clipped under GA depending on the area of bleeding. 1. Anterior ethmoidal artery ligation which is useful for bleeding that originate from the superior part of the nasal cavity. 2. External carotid artery ligation for bleeding from the inferior part of the nasal cavity.

Management Protocol

Adapted from Marks SC: Nasal and sinus surgery

Pathology: Causes – Etiology of symptoms

Foreign body
Accident
Iatrogenic
Acute:
Specific:
Nonspecific:
Chronic:
Benign:
Malignant
1- Congenital
2- Traumatic
3- Inflammatory
4- Neoplastic
5- Others
Reda Kamel, M.D.


It arises either from the skin of the nasal vestibule  squamous papillomas or from the respiratory mucosa  inverted papilloma.A. Squamous papillomaIt is a warty like growth either sessile or pedunculated. It is removed by an elliptical incision and the base is cauterized to prevent recurrence. They can also be treated by cryosurgery or LASER.

B. Inverted Papilloma (transitional cell papilloma, Ringert’z tumour )It arises from the lateral wall of the nose and occasionally from the nasal septum. They expand the containing bone but do not infiltrate. Extension to the ethmoidal and maxillary sinus is common.

Pathology It is histologically benign but has a great tendency to recur. It is named so because microscopically neoplastic epithelium is seen to grow towards underlying stroma rather than on the surface (transitional type of epithelium). There is a coincidental malignancy (synchronous malignancy) in 15% of cases and malignant transformations of the tumour occur in about 8%.

Clinical Picture Mostly seen between 40-70 years with male predominance. The usual presentations are unilateral nasal obstruction and recurrent attacks of sinusitis. Examination It arises from the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and it is always unilateral. It presents as red or grey mass simulating simple nasal polyp.

Investigations 1. Radiology: X.ray and CT scan. 2. biopsy. Treatment Adequate local excision (medial maxillectomy) by lateral rhinotomy approach.

I. Localized Compact Osteoma: it is most frequently found in the frontal sinus, but may be seen in the ethmoidal region. Clinical Picture They are frequently silent. If the frontonasal duct is obstructed, it leads to frontal mucocele. Displacement of the eye. Pressure on the floor of the anterior cranial fossa leads to CSF rhinorrhea and intracranial infection.

Investigations Radiology: X.ray and CT scan. Treatment Asymptomatic: observation. Symptomatic: external frontoethmoidectomy.


II. Fibro-osseous Dysplasia: This disease commonly involves the maxilla and mandible. It represents an arrest of the maturation of bone formation at the stage of woven bone. It is divided into two types: the multiple polyostotic lesion and the monostotic lesion. Multiple polyostotic lesion which is a systemic disease involving several bones. Monostotic lesion which is localized to the maxilla and ethmoidal bone.

Fibrous dysplasia

Clinical PictureIt presents as a painless swelling around the orbit or the cheek. This swelling become apparent during childhood and increases in size, but often ceases to expand after 20 years.InvestigationsRadiology by CT scan.Treatment1. Asymptomatic  observation as the lesion tends to slow in progression during puberty.2. Big (symptomatic)  surgical resculpturing (shaving)

I. Capillary: the commonest site is the nasal septum and here it is called a bleeding polyp of the septum. Clinical Picture Epistaxis and on examination a pedunculated friable red lesion is seen which bleeds easily on touch. Treatment Excision with an adequate margin of the normal mucosa to prevent recurrence. II. Cavernous: which may involve the whole tip of the nose.

Bleeding polyp of the septum

Cavernous Haemangioma

A rare tumor involving mainly the maxillary and ethmoidal sinuses. Aetiology Unknown, but hard wood and nickel workers are more liable to develop this tumour. .


Clinical PictureThe average at presentation is 60 years.1. Unilateral nasal obstruction.2. Blood stained discharge.3. Toothache or loosening of the teeth.4. Extension to the orbit  proptosis and diplopia.5. Facial swelling and skin involvement.

Examination Fleshy polyp Investigations Radiology: CT and MRI. Biopsy through intranasal antrostomy. Metastasis Deep cervical lymph nodes and retropharyngeal lymph nodes Treatment Combination of surgery and DXT.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the maxillary sinus

Sinonasal tumors: Classification
1- Benign: A- Epithelial: -Papilloma -Inverted papilloma -Adenoma B-Non-epithelial: -Hemangioma -Ostioma -Fibrous dysplasia -Chondroma -Meurofibroma2- Intermediate: A-Epithelial: -Ameloblastoma B-Non-epithelial: -Giant cell tumor3- Malignant: A-Epithelial: -Squamous cell ca –Adenoid cystic ca-Melanoma – Olfactory neuroblastoma –Mucoepidermoid tumor –Anaplatic ca B-Non-epithelial: -Ostiosarcoma –Angiosarcoma –Rhabdomyosarcoma -Fibrosarcoma Reda Kamel, M.D.

Sinonasal tumors: Symptoms:

1-Benign: Nasal Extension Expansion 2-Malignant: Nasal Extension Erosion Lymph nodes Metastasis
Reda Kamel, M.D.

Sinonasal tumors: Symptoms:

A- Nasal: Obstruction Discharge Headache Pain Bleeding Bad odor
Reda Kamel, M.D.

Sinonasal tumors: Symptoms:

B- Extension: Medial:nasal Inferior:oral Lateral:orbital, fossa Superior:cranial Anterior:sublabial Posterior: nasopharynx
Reda Kamel, M.D.

Sinonasal tumors: 

Investigations Endoscopy CT & MRI Biopsy
Reda Kamel, M.D.



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